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THE L1& KAR / 

OF CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 


A^ 10 S' 
. C 9 


31183 


COPYRIGHTED 

BY 

THE EDITOR PUBLISHING COMPANY. 

leoa. 


TWO COPIES ftgc 'IViO. 



Ifcv.vo > C V C \, 









CONTENTS. 


:o: 


ASTRONOMY ----- i 

ARITHMETIC ----- 6 

GEOGRAPHY - - - - 19 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY - - - 48 

HYDROSTATICS - - - - 51 

PNEUMATICS - - - - 54 

THERMICS ----- 56 

ACOUSTICS - - - - - 58 

ELECTRICITY 60 

OPTICS - - - - - - 64 

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY - - 64 

GEOLOGY ------ 80 

MINERALOGY 82 

CHEMISTRY - - - - - 86 

ZOOLOGY ----- 87 

READING - - - - . - 90 

SPELLING ----- 165 

LETTER WRITING - - - 177 

LITERATURE - 187 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR - - - - 244 

COMMERCIAL LAW, ETC - - - 262 

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY - - - 275 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY - - - 361 

UNITED STATES HISTORY - - - 430 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT - - - 499 

PARLIAMENTARY RULES - - - 520 







PREFACE. 


u Brevity is the soul of wit.” 

In this volume the author aims to put the reader in 
possession of an intelligent summary of useful, scientific 
and practical subjects, wherein may be found the es¬ 
sence of an entire library expressed in concise language 
and comprehensive style. We claim for the book com¬ 
plete originality. There is not one superfluous word 
between its covers. The straw and chaff are eliminated; 
the grain only presented for consumption. 

“Words are like leaves, and where they most abound, 
Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.” 



CUMMINGS' ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


ASTRONOMY. 


ORIGIN. 

Almighty God is the originator and mover of all 
things. 

SOLAR SYSTEM. 

The solar system consists of the Sun, the great cen¬ 
tral body; the minor planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and 
Mars ; the Asteroids, of which there are 220 known, revolv¬ 
ing outside the orbit of Mars; the outer planets, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, together with Satellites, 
Comets and Meteors. 

Revolution —The Prussian Astronomer, Copernicus, 
proved to the world (1550) that the earth, with other 
planets, revolved around the sun. 

Galileo(15 56) discovered the law of the pendulum, 
and the law offalling bodies. In 1610, he constructed 
a telescope with which he discovered spots on the sun. 
From the use of the telescope has come most of our now 
really extensive knowledge of Astronomy. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1666) discovered the law of Uni¬ 
versal gravitation, viz : That each particle of matter in 
the universe, attracts every other particle with a force 
proportionate to its quantity of matter and inversely 
to the square of their distances. 

l 


2 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


THE SUN. 

This, the great central body of the Solar System, is 
1,400,000 times as large as the earth and 91,500,000 
miles distant. The light of the sun is equal to that of 
800,000 moons. The cause of the sun’s great heat is 
supposed to be combustion; this is but a theory. The 
spots, discovered by Galileo, seem to be openings in the 
sun’s crust displaying a dark body within. An eclipse 
occurs when the moon comes between the earth and the 
sun. 


THE MOON. 

The Moon’s diameter is 21,600 miles and it is 
238,000 miles from the earth. The moon of itself is not 
luminous; the light it gives is reflected from the sun 
and the earth. The spots and streaks on the surface of 
the moon are the shadows of its mountains. The moon 
is barren of atmosphere; this fact explains, in part, its 
influence on the atmosphere and waters of the earth. 
The same face is always presented because her revolu¬ 
tions and rotations are each made in the same time. 

Harvest Moon. —In September we may notice a 
full moon rising about sunset for several nights in 
succession ; the term “ harvest moon ” was given it from 
the fact of its coming at England’s time of harvest. A 
similar occurrence in October, is called the Hunter's 
Moon. 


INNER PLANETS. 

Merc ury — V e nus—E a rth—M a rs. 

MERCURY. 

Mercury is nearest the sun (40,000,000 miles). It 
may be seen neir the horizon and the sun, a short time 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


3 


in the morning or in the evening according as it is east 
or west from the sun. Its orbital revolution (year) is 
88 days. 

VENUS. 

Venus is second from the sun (69,000,000 miles). 
During part of the year it is the evening star , and the 
remaining part of the year the morning star. Its year 
is 224 days. Venus is the most beautiful star; it is 
nearly as large as the earth; its diameter is 22,000 
miles. 

EARTH. 

The Earth is the third planet from the sun (91,500- 
000 miles). The earth travels in its orbit about 550,000- 
000 miles; in addition to its motion on its axis and in its 
orbit, the earth has six other motions: (1) the pre¬ 
cession of equinoxes, 35,868 years; (2) change of 
perihelion of 20,984 years; (3) change of obliquity of 
ecliptic; (4) nutation caused by the moon,* 18f years; 
(5) the planetary perturbations; (6) the translation 
through space as does the solar system. 

MARS. 

Mars is fourth from the sun (141,000,000 miles). 
Its diameter is 4,000 miles ; its day, 24| hours; its year, 
687 days. Phoebus and Deimos , satellites of Mars, are 
the smallest known heavenly bodies; the diameter of Phoe¬ 
bus is from ten to forty miles; that of Deimos, from six 
to ten. 

OUTER PLANETS. 

Jupiter — Saturn — Uranus — Neptune. 

JUPITER. 

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun, and is next 
to Venus in brilliancy. Its distance from the sun is 


4 


Cuminings' Encyclopaedia . 


480,000,000 miles; from the earth, 390,000,000; diame¬ 
ter, 85,000 miles; weight, 213 times, and size, 1,400 
times that of the earth. The length of its day is 9 
hours and 55 minutes. 

SATURN. 

Saturn is sixth from the sun (880,000,000 miles), 
and is 800,000,000 miles from the earth. Being next in 
size to Jupiter, its revolution around the sun requires 
29^ years. In beauty, Saturn takes first place in the 
Solar System. 

URANUS. 

Uranus is seventh from the sun (1,770,000,000 
miles), and 1,862,000,000 from the earth. Its diameter 
is 33,024 miles, and its velocity 14,120 miles per hour. 
It requires 24 years in traveling its orbit. 

NEPTUNE. 

Neptune, the most distant planet, is 2,850,000,000 
miles from the sun, and 2,750,000,000 miles from the 
earth. Being 100 times the size of the earth, its orbit is 
traveled in 164.6 years at a velocity of 12,000 miles per 
hour. 

ASTEROIDS-SATELLITES-STARS. 

The Asteroids are supposed to be fragments of 
exploded planets. They are discovered in that vast belt, 
250,000,000 miles wide, lying between Mars and Jupiter. 

SATELLITES OR MOONS. 

Satellites or Moons. —These small bodies seem to 
dance attendance on the planets; constantly revolving 
around them. 

Planets. —Planets are bodies that shine with a 

% 

steady light and move around the sun, maintaining 
their position through the centripetal and centrifugal 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


5 


forces; the former attracting them toward the sun and 
the latter tending to draw them from the sun. 

Stars. —Stars are bodies of the Stellar System. 
They are similar although larger than the sun. Stars 
shine with a twinkling light; they are apparently 
stationary. The naked eye may see several thousand; 
the telescope exhibits some 40,000,000. 

Comets. —It is not known what relation the comet 
bears to the other bodies. Comets revolve in an eccentric 
ellipse, approaching in their perihelion close to the sun, 
and receding again at the aphelion , far from the sun. 
500 comets have been seen by the naked eye, and as 
many as 700 by the use of the telescope. The head of a 
comet is a burning mass encircled by vapor; an evapora¬ 
tion from the heat of the sun, rising, forms its tail. 

Meteor. —Meteors are numerous small bodies re¬ 
volving around the sun in all manner of orbits. A 
shooting-star is a meteor set on fire by coming in contact 
with the earth’s atmosphere. 


ARITHMETIC. 


Commercial — A dv a need. 

This department warrants only a passing notice of 
primary arithmetic. Let it be remembered that the 
fundamental principles of Arithmetic, Addition , Sub¬ 
traction, Multiplication and Division; while simple in 
theory, their accurate application is all important in the 
commercial world. The accountant who is honest, 
industrious, rapid and accurate, will be sure to command 
favorable notice; such an one is bound to succeed. There 
is no place in the business world for an inaccurate 
accountant. 

The aim of the author is to employ all the principles 
of practical arithmetic in one continuous problem 
Beginning with fractions, each problem covers a princi 
pie, and, while a part of the whole, is yet complete in 
itself. The figures in Italic appearing in each problem, 
constitute the answer to the preceding problem. To 
encourage solutions without rule, only the rules that are 
indispensable, are given. The rules are placed else¬ 
where, and bear a number corresponding to the problem. 

COMMON FRACTIONS. 

Add i t i on — S ub tract ion—Mult ip licatio n—Div is io n . 

1— Add 29 7-12 x 50 16-21 x 41 6-7 x 69}. 

2— Subtract 92 7-25 from the sum of (16 1-21 x 
191 20-21). 


6 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


7 


3— Multiply (10 21-75 x 115 18-25 - 97f) by If. 

4— Divide (455 21-72x^7 17-24) by 83 5-6. 

DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

5— 6x 30-3 °f ^-~ 2 ; reduce to decimal form. 

6 — Add 8 9-10x49.153 x 19.01 x 15 13-20 x 14.72 x 
3 4-5. 

7— Subtract 143f from the sum of 111.233 y 193 
727-1000. 

8 — Multiply the remainder of (62^ x 679.335 - 161. 
085) by 9^. 

9— Divide the remainder of ( 53.696 - 51.792) by 

4.76. 

MEASUREMENTS. 

Dimensions — Capacity — Weight. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length — Surface — Solid. 

Long Measure. — 12 in., 1 foot ; 3 feet, 1 yard; 5f 
yards, or 16f feet, 1 rod; 320 rods, 1 mile; 63,360 in., or 
5,280 feet, 1 mile; 3 barley-corns, 1 inch ; 4 in., 1 hand; 
9 in., 1 span; 6 feet, 1 fathom; 3 feet, 1 pace; 3 geo¬ 
graphical miles, 1 league; 60 geographical miles, or 69.16 
statute miles, 1 degree (at the equator on a meridian of 
latitude); 360 degrees, 1 circle. 

10— How many barley-corns in .4 of a mile? 
Surface Measure. —144 square in., 1 square foot; 

9 square feet, 1 square yard ; 30^ square yards, 1 square 
rod or perch; 160 square rods or perch, 1 acre; 640 square 
acres 1 square mile. 

11 — How many 10-acre fields can be cut from a 
joint farm of 26,368 and 76,032 rods? 

Cubic Measure. —1728 cubic in., 1 cubic foot; 27 
cubic feet, 1 cubic yard ; 8 cord feet, or 128 cubic feet, 




8 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


1 cord ; 23J cubic feet, 1 perch of masonry: ; 40,656 cubic 
inches, 1 cubic yard; 42,768 cubic inches, 1 perch; 
2150.42 cubic inches, 1 bushel. 

12— At $1,244 per perch, what is the value of 64 
times the difference between a cubic yard and a perch ? 

CAPACITY—WEIGHT. 

Liquid — Avoirdupois — Apothecaries — Dry ■— Troy. 

Liquid. —4 gills, 1 pint; 2 pints, 1 quart ; 4 quarts, 
1 gallon ; 31-J gallons, 1 barrel ; 63 gallons, 1 hogshead; 
231 cubic inches, 1 gallon. 

13 — What is a barrel of quinine worth at $7.24 per 
gill? 

Avoirdupois. —16 ounces, 1 pound ; 100 pounds, 1 
cwt. ; 20 cwt., 1 ton ; 2240 pounds, 1 long ton; 196 pounds, 
1 barrel of Flour ; 200 pounds, 1 barrel of Fori'c; 280 
pounds, 1 barrel of Salt ; 60 pounds, 1 bushel of Wheat; 
32 pounds, 1 bushel of Oats; 60 pounds, 1 bu-hel of 
Potatoes; 56 pounds, 1 bushel of Corn ; 60 pounds, 1 
bushel of Clover Seed; 60 pounds, 1 bushel of Beans; 45 
pounds, 1 bushel of Timothy Seed. 

Apothecaries’ Fluid Measure.— 60minims (drops), 
1 fluid drachm; 8 fluid drachms, 1 fluid ounce; 16 fluid 
ounces, 1 pint ; 8 pints, 1 gallon. 

Apothecaries’ Dry Measure. —20 grains, 1 scruple; 

3 scruples, 1 dram; 8 drams, 1 ounce; 12 ounces, 1 
pound. 

Dry Measure. —2 pints, 1 quart; 8 quarts, 1 peck; 

4 pecks, 1 bushel. 

Troy Measure. — 24 grains, 1 pennyweight; 20 
pennyweights, 1 ounce; 12 ounces, 1 pound. 

TIME—CIRCULAR—COUNTING—PAPER— 
BOOKS—MONEY. 

Time. —60 seconds, 1 minute; 60 minutes, 1 hour ; 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


9 


24 hours, 1 day ; 7 days, 1 week; 12 months (365 days), 
1 year', 100 years, 1 century. 

Circular Measure.— 60 seconds ("), 1 minute', 60 
minutes ( v ), 1 degree ; 30 degrees (°), 1 sign; 12 signs 
(s), or 360 degrees, 1 circle. 

Counting.— 12 units, 1 dozen; 12 dozen, 1 gross; 12 
gross, 1 great gross; 20 units, 1 score. 

Paper. —24 sheets, 1 quire; 20 quires, 1 ream; 2 
reams, 1 bundle; 5 bundles, 1 bale. 

Books.— 2 leaves, 1 folio ; 4 leaves, 1 quarto; 12 
leaves, 1 duodecimo; 16 leaves, 1 16wo. 

United States Money. —10 mills, 1 cent; 10 cents, 
1 dime; 10 dimes, 1 dollar; 10 dollars, 1 eagle. Gold, 
Silver, Nickle and Bronze are used in the coin of the 
United States. 

14— How many bushels of wheat, at 1 cent per pint, 
can be bought for $7297.92 ? 

15— What is the value of 1.125 and 1 3-5 tons, and 
2,750 pounds of Hay, at .$15.00 per ton; and 11,403 
bushels of Oats, at 50 cents per bushel? 

16— A owns a farm of 250 acres, of which he sells 
75 acres and 136.4 rods to B; 56 acres and 123.3 rods to 
C; the remainder he sold to D, for $62^ per acre; how 
much does D still owe, after making a payment of 
$5,763? 

17— Mr. Jones has saved $1543.71, to which he adds 
the proceeds of his 1897 vintage, or 1144.96 pints at 
$1.37-£ cents per gallon; what is his total savings? 

18— At $1.50 per bushel, what are 1740.5 pints of 
Beans worth? 


LONGITUDE AND TIME. 

19—32.21 degrees, 44 minutes and 50 seconds, is 
40.79 degrees less than the longitude of Albany, west; 


10 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


the longitude of Boston is 71 degrees, 3 minutes and 30 
seconds, west; the longitude of Paris is 2 degrees and 20 
minutes, east. What is the sum of the - differences 
between Albany and Boston, and between Boston and 
Paris? 

20— 76° 4 N 50" less 5° 1 N 20" equals the longitude of 
Boston, west; the longitude of Chicago is 87° 37 N 45", 
w-est. What time is it at Chicago when it is 6 A. M. at 
Boston? How many seconds in the difference? 

21— I owe you 3977 cents, and carpet a room for 
you at $1.1722 per square yard, which is 26 feet long 
and 18 feet wide. Are you paid in full, or overpaid, and 
how much ? 

22. —What will it cost to excavate a street, 650 feet 
long, 72 feet wide and 4^ feet deep, at 42 cents per cubic 
yard, the extras amounting to $21.18? 

23. —At $2 per bushel, what change should I receive 
from a check of $3,297.18, after paying for the contents 
of a bin of wheat, 20 feet long, 12 feet wide and 5 feet 
deep; there being a rebate of $8.55, for prompt pay¬ 
ment? 

INTEREST. 

Percentage—Profit & Loss — Commission — Discount — 

Taxes — Stocks — Insurance. 

Interest. —The terms of interest ar e principal, rate, 
interest and amount. The principal, is the sum for 
which the interest is paid; the rate, is the number of 
hundredths of the principal; the interest, is what is paid 
for the use of the principal, and the amount, is the sum 
of the principal and interest. Any two of these terms 
given, the others maybe found; as, principal multiplied 
by the rate , gives the interest’, interest divided by the 
rate , gives the principal; interest divided by the princi- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia, 11 

pal, gives the rate; interest added to the principal, gives 
the amount. 

In the following, the terms correspond to those of 
interest and are found in a similar manner: 

Percentage. —Base, rate, percentage, amount and 
difference. Base plus the percentage, equals the amount ; 
base , less the percentage, equals the difference. 

Profit & Loss.—Base or investment, rate, percent¬ 
age or profit and loss. Amount, equals the selling price 
at a profit ; the difference, equals the selling price at a 
loss’, the profit, equals the difference between the base 
and the amount', the loss, equals the difference between 
the term “difference,” and the base. 

Commission. —Base or sales, percentage or commis¬ 
sion, amount and difference. The sales plus the com¬ 
mission, equals the amount ; the sales less the commis¬ 
sion, equals the difference. 

Bank Discount. —Face of note, rate, discount and 
proceeds (face of note less discount.) 

Stocks. —The charter, is an act of incorporation, 
authorizing and defining the business; the capital stock, 
is the amount sub-cribed; a certificate, is a written evi¬ 
dence of the holdings; a share, is an equal part of the 
whole; par value, is the face value; market value, is the 
marketable price ; the premium , discount and brokerage, 
are face-value percentages : an installment, is a payment 
on subscribed stock; an assessment, is laid usually to 
meet a loss; dividends, are the equal shares of net pro¬ 
fit ; net earnings, are the entire earnings, less all ex¬ 
penses. 

Taxes. —A tax is an assessment upon the property, 
person or income of an individual, to defray public ex¬ 
pense. Poll tax, is that levied upon an individual; prop¬ 
erty tax, is that levied on the property of the individual. 


12 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Method of Collection. —To the amount of taxes 
necessary to raise, add the expense of collecting; then 
deduct the amount of poll tax, and divide the remainder 
by the amount of the property valuation; this will give 
the rate; multiply each man’s property assessment by 
the rate, and add the poll tax, if any, to find his tax. 

Revenue Terms. —A custom house , is the govern¬ 
ment’s collection office. A port of entry, is the town 
receiving the imports. A clearance, is the release of 
the vessel. A manifest, is a schedule of the ship’s 
cargo. Duties and customs are taxes levied on im¬ 
ported goods. A specific duty, is a sum levied on the 
weight or measure of the goods, regardless of value. 
Ad valorem duty, is an assessed percentage upon the 
value of the goods in the country from which they are 
brought. 

24. —Owing $372.82 and $1,377.78 . Howard had 
them consolidated into a note dated April 5, 1875, on 
6% interest. On this note he made the following pay¬ 
ments: May 10, 1875, $190; July 1, 1875, $230; 
August 5, 1875, $645; October 1, 1875, $372; w r hat was 
due December 31, 1875? 

25. —What are the proceeds of a 4-month note for 
$355.16 , dated April 7, 1897 ? 

26. —Jonesboro has assessed a tax of $5,925. The 
assessed valuation of taxable property is $370,000 ; there 
are 500 polls, assessed at 75 cents each; what is Jones’ 
tax, who pais for one poll and who has property assessed 
at $5,901 and $348.06, respectively ? 

PARTNERSHIP—INVOLUTION—EVOLUTION- 

MENSURATION. 

For Partnership, see department on Commercial 
Law. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia . 


13 


27.—Find the square root of the sum of $5,583,775 

and $94.60 (91.50). 

Solution: 

5-59-32-25 (2365 

4 

43 

) 159 
) 123 

466 

) 3032 


2796 

4725 

) 23625 


23025 

28.—Find the cube root of the sum of 2365, and 
12,810,539. 

Solution : 


4 6 

300 30 


1389 

First complete divisor 


) 
) 

-) 

1200 180 ) 

180 ) 

9 ) 

) 
) 


12-812-904 ( 234 

8 

4812 

4167 


645904 

645904 


23 

23 


23 

4 

92 

30 

2760 


69 

46 

529 

300 

158700 

2760 

16 


161476 Last complete divisor. 













14 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 

MENSURATION. 

Surface — Solids. 

SURFACE. 

An Angle, is the point of the opening formed by¬ 
lines crossing perpendicular to each other. An obtuse, 
is greater than a right angle, and an acute, less. A 
plane figure , is one bounded by straight lines. The per¬ 
imeter , is the sum of the sides. The area , is the sur¬ 
face between the lines. 

A Right-angled Triangle, is one having one right 
angle. The hypothenuse of a right-angle, is the side 
opposite the angle. An equilateral triangle, is one 
whose sides are equal. An isosceles triangle, is one 
having two sides equal. The scalene triangle has all 
sides equal. 

A Quadrilateral, is a plane figure bounded by 
four straight lines; it is a parallelogram, when its oppo¬ 
site sides are parallel; a rectangle , when its angles are 
right angles; a square, when its sides are equal and its 
angles are right angles; a rhomboid, when its opposite 
sides only, are equal, and it has no right angles; a 
rhombus, when all sides are equal, and none of its an¬ 
gles right angles; a trapezoid, when two sides are equal; 
a trapezium , when no two sides are parallel. 

A Circle, is a figure bounded by a curved surface- 
line. The diameter of a circle, is the distance across 
the center; the circumference, is the distance around; 
the radius, is one-half the diameter. 

SOLIDS. 

A Solid, is a body with length, breadth and thick¬ 
ness. 

A Prism, is a figure whose ends are polygons , and 
sides, parallelograms. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


15 


A Cure, is a body with six equal faces. 

A Cylinder, is a body bounded by a curved surface 
whose ends are parallel circles. 

A Pyramid, is a figure whose base is a polygon, and 
which tapers to a point. 

A Cone, is a figure having a circular base, and 
tapers to a point (vertex). 

The Frustum of a cone or pyramid, is the body 
with the top cut off parallel with the base. 

A Sphere, is a body bounded by a curved surface. 

RULES FOR MENSURATION. 

Triangles. —• Altitude , multiplied by one half the 
base, equals the area. When the area and but one side 
are given, multiply the area by two and divide by the 
given dimension, to find the other dimension. When 
the three dimensions are given, to find the area: from 
one half the sum of the three sides, take each side sep¬ 
arately, then multiply the half sum and the three re¬ 
mainders together, and extract the square root of the 
product; the root is the area. When the two sides are 
given, to find the hypothenuse; extract the square root 
of the sum of the squares of the other two sides. When 
the hypothenuse and the one side are given, to find the 
other side: extract the square root of the difference be¬ 
tween the square of the hypothenuse and the other side. 

Circles. —The diameter multiplied by 3.1410, equals 
the circumference. One fourth the diameter, multiplied 
by the circumference, equals the area. The square of 
the diameter multiplied by 7855, equals the area; this 
process reversed, will give the diameter from the area. 
To find the side of a square by which a circle may be 
inscribed: multiply the diameter of the circle by .7071. 

Pyramids and Cones. —One half the slant height, 
multiplied by the circumference of base, equals the sur- 


16 


Cu rnm mgs' Encyclopoedia. 


face. The area of the base multiplied by one third the 
slant height, equals the volume. 

Frustums. —One half the slant height multiplied by 
the sum of the circumferences of the ends, equals the 
side surface. The sum of the areas of the bases, plus 
the square root of their product, multiplied by one third 
the altitude, equals the volume. 

Sphere. —The diameter , multiplied by 3.1416, 
equals the circumference. Multiply the diameter by the 
greatest circumference of a sphere, to equal the surface. 
The surface of a sphere multiplied by one sixth the dia¬ 
meter, equals the volume. 

Contents of Barrels. —Multiply the square of the 
mean diameter by the length, and this by .0034; this 
gives the cubic inches, which divided by 231, equals the 
gallons. The mean diameter is the head diameter plus 
19-30 of the difference between the head diameter and 
bung diameter. 

29. —What is the width of a rectangular piece of 
ground containing 4,680 square feet, its length being 
231+ feet? 

30. —What is the length of a line drawn diagonally 
from the upper to a lower corner of a room 20 feet long, 
16 feet wide and 12 feet high? 

31. —What is the circumference of a circle whose 
diameter is 28.3 inches? 

32. —What is the side of a square inscribed in a cir¬ 
cle having a circumference of 88.9173? 

33. —What is the entire surface of a square pyramid 
whose base is 8 feet, 6 inches square, and slant height 
20 feet? 

34. —What is the sum of the diameters of two 
spheres whose surfaces are 605.6284 inches and 1+12.25 
inches respectively? 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


17 


35.—18 inches is 90% of 20% of 200% of the sum of 
the base and hypothenuse of a triangle, whose proportion¬ 
ate lengths are to each other as 2 and 3; what is the 
area? Answer, 800 inches. 

RULES. 

1. Reduce to a common denominator, and add 
numerators. 

2. Reduce as in addition, and subtract the numer¬ 
ators. 

3. Multiply the numerators together and denomi¬ 
nators together and reduce. 

4. Reduce as in multiplication, always to fractional 
form, then invert the terms of the divisor, and proceed 
as in multiplication. For convenience, in addition and 
substraction, treat whole and fractional parts separately. 

5. Reduce to the form of a simple fraction. 

6 and 7. Write as in whole numbers, keeping deci¬ 
mal points in a vertical line; place point in the answer, 
before order of tenths, in vertical line. 

8. Point off from right of answer, as many figures 
as there are decimal points in both factors. 

9. Point off from right of quotient, as many fig¬ 
ures as the decimal points in the dividend exceed those 
of the divisor. 

10. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, should be figured 
out from the tables given. 

19 and 20. Reduce time to longitude by multiply¬ 
ing by 15, reduce longitude to time by dividing by 15. 
To find the difference in longitude of two places west 
or two places east, subtract. To find the difference 
when in opposite longitudes, add; should the sum of the 
differences exceed 180 degrees, add, and subtract from 
360 degrees, for difference. 


18 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


21, 22 and 23, should be worked from tables. 

24. From the amount of the principal at date of 
settlement, subtract the sum of the amount of the pay¬ 
ments at date of settlement. 

25. Find the bank discount for the actual number 
of days, and substract from face. 

26. See explanation in the paragraph on Taxes. 

27. Figure rule from the solution given. 

28. Point off in periods of three figures from right; 
find the greatest number whose cube is contained in the 
first left-hand period, as the first root-figure; cube this 
and subtract its cube from period, and draw down the 
next period for a new dividend. Take 300 times the 
square of the root already found; write this to the left 
as a trial divisor; divide this into the dividend, making 
allowance for the complete divisor, and write the result 
as the next figure of the root. To the trial divisor, add 
80 times the quotient of previous root by last root figure, 
and also the square of the last root figure, for the com¬ 
plete divisor. In common fractions extract the root of 
the terms separately. In decimals, point off both ways 
from the decimal point. 

29. 30, 81, 32, 33, 34 and 35, should be worked from 
preceding explanations. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Mathematical — Physical — Political. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Shap e — S ize — A x is—M otio n s — C ire les—Zon es. 

SIZE-SHAPE. 

In Shape, the earth is an oblate spheroid-egg¬ 
shaped, except that it is flattened at the poles. 

Size. —The earth’s greater circumference is 24,899 
miles; its equatorial diameter, 7,925 miles, its axial 
diameter, 7,899 miles. 

axis—MOTION. 

The axis of the earth is the diameter upon which it 
rotates ; the ends of the axis are the poles. 

Motion. —The earth’s rotation on its axis, diurnal 
motion, causes the day and night; its revolution around 
the sun, annual motion, causes the seasons. 

CIRCLES. 

Parallels of Latitude—Meridians of Longitude. 

PARALLELS OF' LATITUDE-. 

These great circles around the earth from east to 
west, are the surface-division lines, used to mark posi¬ 
tions and indicate measurements north and south. The 
Equator , the chief circle, is midway between the poles; 
the Tropic of Cancer, 23^° north of the equator; the 
Tropic of Capricorn , 23|° south of the equator the 

19 


20 


Cummings' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


Arctic Circle , 23£° south of the north pole; the Antarctic 
Circle , 23|° north of the south pole. A complete circle 
consists of 360°; half of a complete circle, or from pole 
to pole, 180°. 

MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE. 

Meridians of Longitude are great circles crossing 
the equator at right angles, and intersecting each other 
at the poles; they indicate position and mark measure¬ 
ment east and west. 

ZONES. 

One Torrid—Two Temperate—Two Frigid. 

Zones of climate mark the belts of temperature on 
the earth’s surface and are divided as follows: 

Torrid Zone.— This great belt of climate, 47° wide, 
extending each side of the equator, 23^°, comprises the 
hot equatorial region between the tropics. 

Temperate Zones. —These great belts of temperate 
climate, each 43° wide, one north and the other south, 
lie between the tropics and the polar circles. 

Frigid Zones (one north and one south).—These 
compose the belts of cold climate, each 23|° wide, lying 
between the poles and the polar circles. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Land and Water. 

LAND. 

EASTERN HEMISPHERE-WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

Extent—Con tour — Relief. 

EXTENT. 

C ontinents and Islands. 

CONTOUR. 

Capes — Peninsulas — Isthmuses. 

RELIEF. 

Plains — V alleys — Plateaus — Mountains. 

WATER. 

Oceans—Coast Waters—Inland Waters. 

OCEANS. 

Atlantic — Pacific — Indian — Arctic — Antarctic. 

COAST WATERS. 

Seas — Gulfs — Bays. 

INLAND WATERS. 

Rivers — Lakes. 

EXPLANATION. 

Hemisphere means half a sphere; the Eastern , the 

old world; Western , the new. 

21 


22 


Cummings ’ Eneyclopceclia . 


The land comprises one-fourth the earth’s surface; 
the water, three-fourths. A Continent is the largest 
division of land. An Island is a portion of land sur¬ 
rounded by water. A l J eninsula is a portion of land 
almost surrounded by water. The Ocean corresponds to 
the continent; the Lake to the island; the Gulf and Bay 
to the peninsula. A Cape is a point of land extending 
into the water. An Isthmus is a neck of land joining 
large portions of land. A Plain is a great tract of level 
land. A Valley is a small tract of level land between 
mountains. A Plateau is high but level land. A 
Mountain is a great elevation of land. A Hill is a small 
elevation of land. A Range is a chain of mountains. A 
System is a chain of ranges. 

NORTH AMERICA. 

United States—British America — Mexico — U. S. of 

Central America. 

UNITED STATES. 

Physical — Political — Industrial. 

PHYSICAL. 

Position — Extent — Mountains — Plains — Lakes — Rivers. 

The United States is situated in the north temper¬ 
ate zone. In length, it is 2,500 miles; in width, 1,200 miles. 
The area (with Alaska) is 3,668,000 square miles. The 
United States is bounded as follows : North , by British 
America; East, by the Atlantic Ocean; South , by the 
Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and on the West , by the 
Pacific Ocean. 

MOUNTAINS. 

Rocky—Appalachian 

APPALACHIAN SYSTEM. 

The great Appalachian System is formed mainly by 
the Alleghany and Cumberland ranges. This system of 


Cummings ’ Ency clojJOid ia . 


it) 


mountains constitutes the Atlantic Highlands, and ex¬ 
tend, excepting the Hudson River and Connecticut 
River breaks, continuously from Maine to Alabama. 

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 

The Rocky Mountain System is formed by the 
Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. 
This system constitutes the Pacific Highlands and ex¬ 
tends from British Columbia to Mexico. 


RIVERS. 


Atlantic System—Gulf System—Mississippi System — 

Pacific System. 


RIVER 
Penobscot 
Kennebec 
Merrimac 
Connecticut 
Hudson 
Susquehanna 
Potomac 
Delaware 
Rappahannock 
James 
Roanoke 
Cape Fear 
Great Pedee 
Santee 


SOURCE 

Lakes of upper Me 

Moosehead L mid¬ 
dle Maine 
Central N Hamp¬ 
shire 

Northern N Hamp¬ 
shire 

Adirondac Moun¬ 
tains 

Central N. Y. 
Eastern W. Va. 
Southern N. Y. 
Northern Virginia 
West Virginia 
Southern Va. 
Central N C 
North Carolina 
Northern S C 


10 SYSTEM. 

COURSE 
South through Me 

44 4b 44 


South through N H 

Boundary line of 
Vt and N H 

South through N Y 
South through N Y 
Pa and Md 
East hetween Md 
and Virginia 
South betwean Pa 
and New Jersev 
East through Va 

East through Va 

East through Va and 
North Carolina 
South-east through 
North Carolina 
South through N C 
and S C 

South E through 
South Carolina 


EMPTIES INTO 
Penobscot Bay 
Casco Bay 
Atlantic Ocean 
Long Island Sound 
New York Bay 
Chesapeake Bay 
Chesapeake Bay 
Delaware Bay 
Chesapeake Bay 
Chesapeake Bay 
Albemarle Sound 
Atlantic Ocern 
Atlantic Ocean 
Atlantic Ocean 


24 


Cummings' 1 Encyclopedia 


Altamaba 

Savannah 

Suwanee 

Chattahoochee 

Alabama 

Pearl 

Mississippi 

Sabine 

Trinity 

Brazos 

Colorado 

San Antonio 

Rio Grande 

Ohio 

Alleghany 

Monongahela 

Kentucky 

Cumberland 

Tennessee 
Big Black 
Green 

Great Kanawha 

Miami 

Wabash 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Big Black 
Missouri 
Minnesota 
Des Moines 

Dakota 


Northern Georgia East through Ga Atlantic Ocean 

Northern Georgia South E through Atlantic Ocean 

Ga and S C 

GULF SYSTEM. 


Georgia 

Northern Georgia 
North-west Ga 
Middle-Mississippi 
Lake Itasca Minn 
Northern Texas 
Northern Texas 
North-central Tex 
North-Central Tex 
Southern Texas 
Western Texas 


South through Ga 
and Florida 
South between Ga 
and Ala and through 
Florida 

S mth through Ga 
and Ala 

South through Miss 

South through U S 

South between Tex 
and La 

South-east through 
Texas 

South-east through 
Texas 

South-east through 
Texas 

East through Texas 

East between Texas 
and Mexico 

PPI SYSTEM 


Gulf of Mexico 

Gulf of Mexico 
Mobile Bay 
Mississippi Sound 
Gulf of Mexico 
Gulf of Mexico 
Gulf of Mexico 
Gulf of Mexico 
Matagorda Bay 
Matagorda Bay 
Gulf of Mexico 


Alleghany and 
Monongahela 
South-west N Y 

Northern Ky 

South-east Ky 

South-east Ky 

North Carolina 
N./thern Miss 
Eastern Kentucky 


South west between 
Ind III and Kr 
South through N Y 
and Pa 

North through Ky 
W Va and Pa 
North-west through 
Kontucky 
West through Ky 
and Tenn 

W through N C Ala 
then N through 
Tenn and Ky 
South-west through 
M ississippi 
Wtst through Ky 


Mississippi R 
Ohio River 

u u 

u u 

44 44 

44 44 


Mississippi River 
Ohio River 


Virginia 
Northern Ohio 


North through Va 
and W Va 

South through Ohio 


Northern Indiana 

Southern Wis 

Northern Wis 

Northern Wis 
Rockies Mont 
Western Minn 
North-west Iowa 

North Dakota 


South between Ind “ “ 

and Ill 

South-west through Mississippi River 
Wis and Ill 

South-west through “ “ 

Wisconsin 

South-w through Wis “ *• 

South-east “ “ 

East thro tgh Minn “ M 

South-east through “ “ 

Iowa 

South through N Missouri River 
and S Dakota 



Cummings' 

Encyclopaedia. 

25 

Niobrara 

Western Nebraska 

East through Neb 

u u 

Platte 

Western Nebraska 

East through Neb 

44 44 

Solomon 

Western Kansas 

East through Ks 

u ii 

Arkansas 

Kansas 

South th’gh Kansas 
Okla and Ark 

4. 44 

Red 

Western Texas 

South-east th’gh 
Texas and La 

44 *4 

ROCKY MOUNTAIN AND 

PACIFIC OCEAN 

SYSTEMS. 

Colorado 

Rockies in Col 

South th’gh Col 

Utah Arz and Cal 

Gulf of California 

Gila 

New Mexico 

West th’gh N M 
and Arizona 

Colorado River 

Green 

Central Rockies 

South-west th’gh Col 
Utah and Arz 

4b 14 

Sacramento 

Northern Cal 

South-w th’gh Cal 

San Francisco Bay 

Columbia 

British Columbia 

South-west th’gh 
Wash and Org 

Pacific Ocean 

Snake 

Southern Idaho 

North th’gh Idaho 
and Oregon 

Columbia River 


LAKES—BAYS- 

-GULFS—SOUNDS. 


NEW ENGLAND STATES. 

Moosehead Lake is situate in the western part of 
Maine. Passamaquaddy Bay, north-east of Maine. 
Penobscot Bay and Casco Bay, south-east of Maine. 
Massachusetts Bay, east of Massachusetts. Buzzard’s 
Bay, south of Massachusetts. Narragansett Bay, south 
of Rhode Island. Long Island Sound, between Con¬ 
necticut and Long Island. 

MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 

New York Bay, mouth of the Hudson River, between 
Long Island and the Jersey mainland. Lake Champlain 
and Lake George, north-eastern corner of New York. 
Delaware Bay, between the Jersey mainland and Dela¬ 
ware. Chesapeake Bay extends in between Maryland 
and Virginia. 

SOUTH-EAST STATES. 

Albemarle Sound and Pamlico Sound, east of North 
Carolina. Lake Okeechobee, south-central part of 


26 


C umm in gs' Encyclopaidict.. 


Florida. Tampa Bay, west of Florida. Appalachee 
Bay and Pensacola Bay, south of Florida. Mobile Bay, 
south of Alabama. Mississippi Sound, south of 
Mississippi. 

SOUTH-WEST STATES. 

Gulf of Mexico, Galveston Bay and Matagorda Bay 
south-east of Texas. Lake Pontchartrain and Grand 
Lake, in southern part of Louisiana. 

LAKE REGION. 

Lakes Superior, Michigan, Erie, Ontario, are known 
as the Great Lakes. Georgian Bay, an arm of Lake 
Huron. Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan. Lake 
St. Clair, between southern Michigan and Canada. 
Lake Winnebago, in eastern Wisconsin. Red Lake, 
Itasca, Cass Lake and Leech Lake, in the north-central 
part of Minnesota (source of the Mississippi River). 
Lake of the Woods, between Minnesota and Canada. 
Devil’s Lake, in north-east Dakota. 

ROCKY AND PACIFIC REGIONS. 

Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake and Sevier Lake in cen¬ 
tral and northern Utah. Yellowstone Lake, in National 
Park, north-west corner of Wyoming. San Francisco 
Bay, west of California. Strait of Juan De Fuca, north¬ 
west of Washington. Gulf of Georgia, between the 
north-west corner of Washington and British Columbia. 

ISLANDS-PENINSULAS-CAPES. 

Mount Desert and Deer Island, off south-east Maine. 
Capes Ann and Cod, east Massachusetts. Elizabeth, 
Nantucket andMarthas Vineyard, south of Massachusetts. 
Long Island, south of Connecticut. Staten Island and 
Governors Island, in New York Bay. Cape May, south 
New Jersey. Cape Henlopen, east point of Delaware. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


27 


Cape Charles, southern extremity of New Jersey. Cape 
Henry, opposite Cape Charles, east Delaware. Capes 
Hatteras, Lookout and Fear, east points of North Caro¬ 
lina. Cape Sable, extreme southern point of Florida. 
Cape Florida, south-east Florida. Cape Romano, south¬ 
west point of Florida. Padre Island, south-east Texas. 
Royal Isle, in Lake Superior. Beaver Isles, in upper 
Lake Michigan. Apostle Isles, in south-west Lake 
Superior. Santa Barbara Islands, off south California. 
Point Conception, south-west California. Cape Mendo¬ 
cino, north-west point of California. Cape Blanco, 
south-west coast of Oregon. Cape Hancock, south-west 
coast of Washington. • Cape Flattery, north-west coast 
of Washington. 




POLITICAL and INDUSTRIAL. 

Note. —In the following data of States, the first 
item is the area in square miles; then the leading indus¬ 
tries, in their proper order; closing with the leading 
cities, beginning with the capital. 

EASTERN STATES. 

Maine. —33,040. Lumbering, Shipbuilding and 

Commerce. Augusta, Portland, Lewiston and Bangor. 

New Hampshire. —9,305. Manufacturing, Agri¬ 
culture and Quarrying. Concord, Manchester, Ports¬ 
mouth and Nashua. 

Vermont. —9,565. Stockraising, Dairying and Agri¬ 
culture. Montpelier, Burlington and Bennington. 

Massachusetts. —8,315. Commerce, Manufactur¬ 
ing and Fisheries. Boston, Lowell, Lawrence, Fall 
River, Lynn, Worcester, Springfield and Cambridge. 

Rhode Island.—1,250. Manufactories of cotton 

* 

and woolen goods. Providence and Newport. 

Connecticut. —4,990. Manufacturing, Agriculture 
and Commerce. Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, 
Waterbury and Meriden. 

New York. —49,170. Commerce, Manufacturing 
and Agriculture. Albany, Greater New York, Buffalo, 
Rochester and Syracuse. 

Pennsytvania. —45,215. Mining, Manufacturing, 
Agriculture and Commerce. Harrisburg, Philadelphia, 
Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, Reading, Williamsport 
Lancaster and Wilkesbarre. 


28 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


29 


New Jersey. —7,815. Gardening, Manufacturing 
and Mining. Trenton, Jersey City and Newark. 

Delaware.- —2,050. Fruit Growing, Market Gar¬ 
dening and Manufacturing. Dover and Wilmington. 

Maryland.— 12,201. Agriculture, Commerce and 
Mining. Annapolis and Baltimore. 

SOUTH-EASTERN STATES. 

Virginia.— 42,450. Agriculture and Mining. Rich¬ 
mond, Norfolk and Petersburg. 

West Virginia.— 24,780. Mining and Agriculture. 
Charleston, Wheeling and Parkersburg. 

North Carolina.—52,250. Agriculture and Lum¬ 
bering. Raleigh and Wilmington. 

South Carolina.— 80,570. Agriculture (cotton and 
rice). Columbia and Chaileston. 

Georgia. —59,475. Manufacturing and Agricul¬ 
ture (cotton, rice, sweet potatoes). Atlanta, Savannah 
and Augusta. 

Florida. —58,680. Fruit-raising, Agriculture and 
Commerce. Tallahassee, Key West, Jacksonville and 
Pensacola. 

Kentucky. —40,400. Agriculture (tobacco and 
hemp) and Mining. Frankfort, Louisville, Covington, 
Lexington and Newport. 

Tennessee. —42,050. Mining, Cattle-raising and 
Agriculture (cotton and corn). Nashville, Memphis, 
Knoxville and Chattanooga. 

Alabama. —52,250. Agriculture (cotton and corn) 
Mining and Manufacturing. Montgomery, Mobile and 
Birmingham. 

Mississippi. —46,810. Agriculture (cotton). Jack- 
son, Vicksburg and Meridian, 


30 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


SOUTH-WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Louisiana. —48,720. Agriculture (cotton, sugar 
and rice) and Commerce. Baton Rouge, New Orleans 
and Shreveport. 

Arkansas — 53,850. Stock-raising, Agriculture 
(corn) and Mining. Little Rock, Fort Smith and Pine 
Bluff. 

Texas. —265,780. Stock-raising and Agriculture. 
Austin, Galveston, Dallas, Houston and San Antonio. 

Indian Territory. —31,400. This is an Indian reser¬ 
vation ; many of the Indians are engaged in Agriculture. 
Tahlequah is the chief town. 

Oklahoma. —39,030. Stock-raising and Farming. 
Guthrie and Oklahoma. 

CENTRAL STATES. 

Ohio. —41,060. Agriculture, Mining and Manufac¬ 
turing. Columbus, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo and 
Dayton. 

Indiana. —36,350. Agriculture (corn and wheat), 
Mining and Commerce. Indianapolis, Evansville, Rich¬ 
mond, Terre Haute and Fort Wayne. 

Illinois. —56,650. Agriculture (corn and wheat), 
Mining, Commerce and Manufacturing. Springfield. 
Chicago, Peoria, Bloomington, Quincy and Joliet. 

Wisconsin. —46,040. Agriculture, Mining, Com¬ 
merce and Manufacturing. Madison, Milwaukee, Ra¬ 
cine and Eau Claire. 

Michigan.—58,915. Mining, Lumbering, Manu¬ 
facturing and Commerce. Lansing, Detroit, Grand 
Rapids, Saginaw, Bay City and Manistee. 

Minnesota. —83,365. Agriculture (wheat and oats) 
Lumbering and Mining. St. Paul, Duluth, Minneapolis 
and Stillwater. 


Cumming s’ Encyclopcedia. 


31 


Iowa.— 56,025. Agriculture and Mining. Des 
Moines, Sioux City, Dubuque, Davenport, Burlington 
and Council Bluffs. 

Missouri. —69,415. Agriculture (corn and wheat), 
Mining and Manufacturing. Jefferson City, St. Louis, 
St. Joseph, Kansas City and Springfield. 

Kansas.— 82,080. Agriculture, Stock-raising and 
Mining. Topeka, Kansas City, Wichita, Atchison and 
Leavenworth. 

Nebraska. — 77,510. Agriculture, Stock-raising 
and Mining. Lincoln, Omaha and Nebraska City. 

South Dakota.— 77,615. Agriculture, Stock-rais¬ 
ing and Mining. Pierre, Sioux Falls, Huron and Yank¬ 
ton. 

North Dakota.— 70,795. Agriculture and Stock- 
raising. Bismarck and Fargo. 

PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Montana.— 146,080. Mining (gold, silver and cop¬ 
per) and Stock-raising. Helena and Butte City. 

Wyoming. — 97,890. Stock-raising and Mining. 
Cheyenne, Sherman and Kearney. 

Colorado. — 103,925. Agriculture, Stock-raising 
and Mining (silver). Denver, Leadville, Pueblo and 
Colorado Springs. 

Idaho. —84,800. Mining (gold, silver, salt and 

iron) and Stock-raising. Boise City and Silver City. 

Nevada. —110,700. Mining (silver). Carson City 
and Virginia City. 

Utah. —84,970. Mining (silver). Agriculture (by 
irrigation) and Stock-raising. Salt Lake City. 

Arizona Territory.—113,020. Mining (silver and 
copper) and Stock-raising. Phoenix, Tucson and Pres¬ 
cott. 


82 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


New Mexico Territory.—122.510. Mining and 

Stock-raising. Santa Fe, Silver City and Albuquerque. 

California.—158,360. Fruit-raising, Mining (gold 
and silver), Commerce and Manufacturing. Sacramento, 
San Francisco and Los Angeles. 

Oregon.—96,030. Agriculture, Stock-raising, Min¬ 
ing and Lumbering. Salem and Portland. 

Washington.—69,180. Lumbering, Stock-raising 
and Commerce. Olympia, Walla Walla, Seattle, Tacoma 
and Spokane. 

Alaska Territory.—577.390. Furs, Fisheries, For¬ 
ests and Gold. 

Hawaiian Islands, in the Pacific, annexed to the 
United States, July 7, 1898. 

Note —See Spanish-American war in United States 
History. 


BRITISH AMERICA. 


British America (Canada) lies between the Arctic 
Oc ean and the United States, on the north and south; 
and between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, east 
and west. Its area is 3,777,500 square miles. 

ISLANDS. 

Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and 
Anticosti, off south-east coast; Queen Charlotte and 
Vancouver, off the west coast; Banks, Prince Albert, 
Devon, North Somerset and Prince of Wales, in the 
north waters; Southampton and Mansfield, in Hudson 
Bay. 

WATERS. 

Hudson Bay, Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, 
Lake of the Woods and Winnipeg Lake, in the interior 
of Canada; Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, in 
south eastern part; Baffin Bay, Cumberland Bay, Hud¬ 
son Strait, Davis Strait, Frobisher Bay, in the north-east 
part; Lancaster Sound, Gulf of Boothia, Melville Sound 
and Prince Albert Sound, in the extreme north. 

PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES. 

Provinces. —Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Manitoba, com¬ 
prise the Provinces of the Dominion. These are the 
organized political divisions; they correspond to the 
States of the United States. 


83 


34 


C 11 m m in g s' Encyclopced i a . 


Territories. —North-west, British Columbia, Al¬ 
berta, Athabasca Keewatin, Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, 
Labrador and Newfoundland. 

GOVERNMENT. 

The Dominion of Canada is a semi-dependent pos¬ 
session of Great Britain. It has a resident Parliament, 
consisting of a Senate and House of Commons. The 
chief executive officer is its Governor-General, who is 
appointed by the home government. The members of 
the House are elected by the people, while those of the 
Senate are appointed by the Governor-General and hold 
office for life. Ottawa, on the Ottawa River, in the 
eastern part of Ontario, near the United States, is the 
capital. 

INDUSTRIES AND CITIES. 

Industries. —In the Provinces, fishing, commerce, 
manufacturing and agriculture, are extensively engaged 
in. In the great north-west, the fur trade and lumber¬ 
ing are the chief industries. 

Cities. —Quebec and Montreal, in the Province of 
Quebec ; Ottawa, Toronto and Hamilton, in Ontario ; St. 
John, in New Brunswick; Halifax and Liverpool, in 
Nova Scotia, and Charlotte, in Prince Edward Island, 
are the leading cities. 


MEXICO. 

Mexico lies south of the United States, and between 
the Pacific Ocean on the west and south, and the Gulf 
of Mexico on the east, with Central America still to the 
south-east. Its area is 751,500 square miles. The 
inhabitants are of Spanish descent, with Indians and 
mixed races. Mexico is fast becoming an important 
country and is making great advancement in manu- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


35 


facturing, mining and commerce; agriculture and 
stock-raising are also extensively engaged in. The 
Government is an Independent Republic. Its capital is 
the beautiful City of Mexico. 

U. S. OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and 
Costa Rica recently joined into a Republic, together 
with Balize, a British possession, form what is known as 
Central America. The country forms a peninsula, join¬ 
ing the two American grand divisions. On the north¬ 
east, lies the Caribbean Sea; on the south, the Pacific 
Ocean, and South America; on the west, the Pacific 
Ocean; and on the north, the Republic of Mexico. It is 
rich in mineral and timber; the soil is exceptionally 
fertile. The Government is now one Independent Re¬ 
public. The people are like those of Mexico. The 
country has a mild and even climate. Its great resources 
are practically undeveloped. 

WEST INDIES. 

Greater Antilies—Lesser Antilles — Bahamas. 

Spanish Possessions. —Cuba and Porto Rico, with 
an area of 49,500 square miles. Cuba is now (1898) 
engaged in a rebellion, which may end in independence. 

(Note— See Spanish-American war in United States 
History). 

English Possessions. —The Bahamas, Jamaica and 
other small islands are possessions of Great Britain; 
their area is 13,300 square miles. 

French Possessions. — France owns many small 
islands aggregating about 1,100 square miles. 

Dutch Possessions. —The Dutch possessions consist 
of a lot of small islands, about 430 square miles. 


86 


Cum m ings' Encyclopaedia . 


Danish Possessions. — Small islands, about 140 
square miles. 

Hayti and San Domingo. —These are Independent 
Republics, with an area of 29,820 square miles. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

South America is situated between parallels 12° 
north latitude and 55° south latitude. The Andes 
Mountains extend from north to south, along the west¬ 
ern coast. The Isthmus of Panama and Caribbean Sea, 
on the north; the Atlantic Ocean, on the east; the 
Antarctic, south, and the Pacific, -west, constitute its 
boundaries. Lying largely in the torrid zone, its climate 
is hot, except in lofty Andes, whose summits are per¬ 
petually snow-capped. 

ISLANDS—CAPES—LAKES—RIVERS. 

ISLANDS. 

Trinidad, north of Venezuela; Marajo, in the mouth 
of the Amazon; Falkland and South Georgia, off the 
south-east coast; Tierra del Fuego, cut off from main¬ 
land by Magellan Strait; Wellington and Desolation, off 
the coast of Chili; Chiloe, Juan Fernandez and St. 
Felix, west of Chili; Galapagos, off Ecuador. 

CAPES. 

Gallinas, from northern Columbia; St. Roque, St. 
Augustin and Frio, from east Brazil; San Antonio and 
Blanco, from Argentine Republic, east; Horn, extreme 
southern point; Pilar, south-east coast, and Blanco and 
San Francisco, from Ecuador. 

GULFS, ETC. 

Gulf of Darien, north of Columbia; Lake Maracaybo, 
northern Venezuela ; Strait of Magellan, divides Tierra- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


37 


del Fuego from the mainland; Gulf of San Matias and 
Gulf of St. George, east of Argentine and Panama Bay. 

RIVERS. 

The Great Amazon River rises in the Andes, and 
flows east into the Atlantic. Its tributaries from the 
north are: Branco, Rio Negro and Japura. From the 
south, Maranon, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Araguay and 
Xingu. Venezuela has the Orinoco, flowing north into 
the Atlantic, and eastern Brazil, the San Francisco, 
flowing east. The Rio de la Plata, with its great tribu¬ 
taries, Uruguay, Parana and Paraguay, from the north ; 
and Pilcomayo, Vermejo and Salado, from the west, 
drain the south-central section. The Colorado and Rio 
Negro drain central Argentine, east. 

POLITICAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 

Columbia.-— Area, 464,587 square miles; exports, 
coffee, cotton and cinchona bark; leading industries, 
Commerce and Agriculture; government a republic; 
Bogota, in the center, the capital; Aspinwall and Pana¬ 
ma, on the peninsula, and Cartagena, north, are its 
leading cities. 

Venezuela. —Area, 403,067 square miles; exports, 
coffee, cocoa and hides ; government, a Republic ; Caracas, 
the capital, and La Guayra and important seaport. 

Guianas. —These are colonial possessions of Eng¬ 
land, Holland and France. Georgetown, Paramaribo 
and Cayenne, seaport towns, are the capitals of British, 
Dutch and French Guiana, respectively. 

Brazil. —Area, 8,228,452 square miles; exports, 
diamonds, hides and sugar; government, a Republic; 
Rio Janeiro, on south-east coast, the capital; leading 
cities, Para and Pernambuco. 


38 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentine, to the south¬ 
east ; Chili, consisting of the foothills of the Ancles to 
the Pacific, from Peru to Cape Horn; Bolivia, in the 
center, and Peru and Ecuador, occupying the remainder 
of the Pacific coast, all Republics, make up the 
remainder of the South American countries. The peo¬ 
ple of South America rank with those of North America 
and Europe in progress and civilization. 

EASTERN HEMISPHERE. 

Europe — Asia — Africa—A ustrada. 

EUROPE. 

Physical — Political — Industrial. 

PHYSICAL. 

Land — Water. 

LAND. 

Islands —-J fourttains—( apes — Peninsulas. 

Islands. —Iceland, north of British Isles; Lofoden, 
off Norway; Faroe, Shetland, Orkney and Hebrides, 
north of Scotland; Man and Anglesey, in Irish Sea; 
Wight, south of England; Jersey, Alderney and Guern¬ 
sey, west of northern France; Balearic Islands, east of 
Spain; Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, south of Italy; 
Crete and Cyprus, east Mediterranean. 

Mountains. —Scandinavian, in Norway; Ural, be¬ 
tween Europe and Asia; Caucasus, south of Russia; Car¬ 
pathian, in Austria; Balkan, in Turkey; Apennines, in 
Italy; Alps, Switzerland ; Pyrenees, between France and 
Spain; Grampian Hills, Scotland; Mt. Etna, Sicily 
Island; Mt. Blanc, Alps, Switzerland; Vesuvius, south¬ 
ern Italy. 

Capes. —North, north of Norway; The Naze, south 
of Norway; Clear, south of Ireland; Lands End, south 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


89 


of England; Ortegal and Finisterre, north-west Spain; 
St. Vincent, south-west Portugal; Passaro, south of 
Sicily, and Matapan, south of Greece. 

WATERS. 

Seas — Gulfs — Hirers — Lakes — Straits. 

Seas, Gulfs and Bays. —White Sea, north-western 
Russia; German Ocean north-west of Germany; Baltic 
Sea, north of Germany; Gulfs, Finland and Bothnia, 
arms of Baltic; Irish Sea, between England and Ireland; 
Bay of Biscay, west of France; Mediterranean Sen, south 
of Europe; Gulfs, Line and Genoa, south of France ; 
Adriatic Sea, between Austria and Italy; Gulf of 
Venice, north-western point of Adriatic Sea ; Gulf of 
Taranto, south-east of Italy; AEgean Sea, east of Greece; 
Sea of Marmora, between Asia Minor and Turkey; 
Black Sea, south of Russia; Azov, an arm of the Black; 
Caspian Sea, south-east of Russia. 

Lakes. —Onega and Ladoga, north-western Russia; 
Wener and Maelar, southern Sweden; Killarney, southern 
Ireland; Geneva and Constance, Switzerland; Spirding 
and Mauer, north-eastern Germany. 

Straits. — Skager Rack and Cattegat join the 
North and Baltic Seas; English Channel and Strait of 
Dover join the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean; North 
Channel joins the Irish Sea to Atlantic Ocean; St. 
George’s Channel joins the Irish Sea to Atlantic, south; 
Strait of Gibraltar connects the Mediterranean and 
Atlantic; Strait Otranto, connects the Adriatic and 
Mediterranean; Dardanelles connects the AEgean and 
Marmora; Bosporus connects Marmora and Black. 

Rivers. —Petchora: source, Ural Mountains; mouth, 
Arctic Ocean. Dwina: source, north-central Russia; 
mouth, White Sea. Volga: source, Valdai Hills; 


40 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


mouth, the Caspian Sea. Don : source, southern Russia, 
mouth, Azov Sea. Dnieper: source, south-western 
Russia ; mouth, Black Sea. Danube : source, Southern 
Germany; mouth, Black Sea. Tiber: source, Apen¬ 
nines; mouth, Mediterranean Sea. Po : source, north¬ 
western Italy; mouth, Gulf of Venice. Rhone: source, 
Lake Geneva; mouth, Gulf of Lion. Ebro: source, 
northern Spain ; mouth, Mediterranean. Tagus : source, 
east-central Spain; mouth, Atlantic. Garonne: source, 
southern France; mouth, Bay of Biscay. Loire: source, 
central France; mouth, Bay of Biscay. Seine: source, 
north-eastern France ; mouth, English Channel. Rhine: 
source, Alps; mouth Strait of Dover. Elbe: source, 
north-western Austria; mouth, North Sea. Oder: 
source, south-eastern Germany; mouth, Baltic Sea. 
Vistula: source, northern Austria; mouth, Baltic Sea. 
Thames: source, south-central England; mouth, Strait 
of Dover. Shannon: source, north-western Ireland; 
mouth, Atlantic. Lee: source, south-eastern Ireland; 
mouth, Cork Harbor. Clyde: source, south-central 
Scotland; mouth, Firth of Clyde. 

POLITICAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 

Note. —In the following data of countries, the first item 
is the area in square miles; then the leading industries, 
closing with the leading cities, beginning with the capital. 

England, Ireland and Scotland. —121,483. Manu¬ 
facturing, Mining, Commerce, Agriculture and Stock- 
raising. London, Dublin, Edinburgh. 

France. —207,116. Agriculture, Manufacturing and 
Commerce. Paris, Havre, Reims, Bordeaux and Mar¬ 
seilles. 

Germany.—209,995. Agriculture, Manufacturing 
and Commerce. Berlin, Bremen, Hamburg, Munich 
and Stuttgart. 


Cummtrigs' Encyclopaedia. 


41 


Austro-Hungary.—-201,318. Agriculture and Com¬ 
merce. Vienna, Prague, Brunn and Buda-Pesth. 

European Russia.— 2,045,712. Agriculture, Com¬ 
merce and Mining. St. Petersburg, Moscow and Yvarsaw. 

Italy. — 110,657. Fruit-raising, Commerce and 
Agriculture. Rome, Naples, Venice, Turin and Florence. 

European Turkey. — 105,234. Agriculture and 
Cattle-raising. Constantinople and Belgrade. 

Greece.— 25,143. Stock-raising, Agriculture and 
Commerce. Athens and Corinth. 

Spain.— 191,994. Fruit-growing, Mining, Agricul¬ 
ture and Commerce. Madrid, Seville, Barcelona and 
Malaga. 

Portugal. —34,508. Fruit-growing and Commerce. 
Lisbon and Oporto. 

Switzerland.—16,192. Wood-carving and Stock- 
raising. Berne, Geneva and Zurich. 

Holland. —12,742. Farming, Dairying and Fish¬ 
ing. The Hague, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 

Belgium. —11,874. Manufacture of Carpets, and 
Agriculture. Brussels, Antwerp and Ghent. 

Denmark. —14,780. Fishing, Agriculture and Com¬ 
merce. Copenhagen, Odense. 

Norway and Sweden. — 299,572. Mining, Lum¬ 
bering, Fishing and Commerce. Stockholm and Chris¬ 
tiania. 

In Government, France and Switzerland are Repub¬ 
lics; Russia and Turkey, absolute Monarchies; Spain, a 
Monarchy; all the others are Constitutional Monarchies. 

ASIA. 

Note.— In the following data of Asia, the area, in square 
miles, the Islands, Mountains, Capes, Seas, Gulfs and Bays, 
Straits and Channels, Rivers, Kind of Government, Indus¬ 
tries and Cities (beginning with the capital) of the countries, 
shall be mentioned in the order named. 


42 


Cummings' JEncyclopceclia, 


Asiatic Russia. —Area, 6,465.339. Islands; Nova 
Zembla, New Siberia, Wrangel, Saghalien Mountains; 
Altai and Ural. Capes; North-east, East and Lopatka. 
Seas, Gulfs, Bays and Straits; Kara Sea, Behring Strait, 
Behring Sea, Okhotsk Sea, Gulf of Penjinsk, Aral Sea 
and Rivers; Obi, Yenisei and Lena, flowing north into 
the Arctic Ocean, and the Amoor, emptying into Ok¬ 
hotsk. Absolute Monarchy. Agriculture, Mining of 
Gold, Fur trade and Commerce. Tobolsk and Irkutsk. 

China. —4,291,931. Islands; Formosa and Hainan. 
Thian Shan, Khin-Gan and Peling. Seas, etc. Yellow 
Sea, Gulf of Pechele, East China Sea, Strait of Formosa, 
South China Sea and Gulf of Tonquin. Rivers: Yang- 
tse-Kiang, Hoang-IIo and Si-Kiang. Absolute Mon- 
archy. Agriculture and Commerce. China exports tea, 
chinaware and silks. Peking, Canton, Shanghai and 
Foo Chow. 

Japan. —147,629. Islands: Kurile and Loo Choo. 
Seas and Straits: Okhotsk Sea, LaPerouse Strait, Japan 
Sea and Straits, Tsugaru and Corea. 

Anam, Siam and Burmah (Indo-China) Anam.— 
Area, 88,807 ; French possession ; Gulf of Tonguin and 
South China Sea, east; Tonguin River, north; Cape 
Cambodia, south ; Hue, the capital; exports timber and 
fruits. Siam: Area, 308,893; Absolute Monarchy; 
Cambodia River and Gulf of Siam, south ; Bankok, the 
capital; exports timber and spices. Burmah and Up¬ 
per Siam. Area, 288, 410; Colony of England; Malay 
Peninsula, south; Bengal Bay and Irrawaddy River, west; 
capital, Mandalay; exports, timber and oriental woods. 

British India. Area, 1,759,514; Bengal Bay, 
Ceylon Island, and Gulf of Manaar, to the east and 
south; Cape Comorin, south; Maldive and Laccadive 
Islands, south-west; Indus River and Gulf of Cambay, 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


43 


south-west; Ganges, Godavery and Kistna Rivers, east; 
capital, Calcutta, Bombay; exports, wheat and spices; 
Himalaya Mountains, north. 

Afghanistan and Beloochistan. Area, 879,166; 
Semi-Civilized Independencies (Khanates;) Hindoo 
Koosh Mountains, north; British India, east; Arabian 
Sea, south; Persia, west; Cabul, the capital of Afghan¬ 
istan; Kelat, of Beloochistan. 

Persia. Area, 635,160; Absolute Monarchy, (ruler, 
Shah;) Caspian Sea, north; Gulf of Oman, Strait of 
Ormuz and Persian Gulf, south; Elburz Mountains, 
north; great deserts, interior; Zagros Mountains, south; 
Teheran, the capital; Shawls and Rose-water. 

Arabia. —957,274; despotism; bounded north, Asi¬ 
atic Turkey, Persian Gulf, St. of Ormuz and Oman 
Gulf; east, Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden; south, St. of 
Bab-el-Mandeb and Asiastic Turkey; Muscat, the 
capital; exports, coffee, dates, myrrh, pearls and 
frankincense. 

Asiatic Turkey. —Area, 709,360; bounded north 
by Black Sea and Trans-Caucasia (a semi-independency, 
south of the Caucasus Mountains) : east and south, by 
the Persian Gulf, Persia, Red Sea and Suez Canal; west 
by the Mediterranean and JEgean Seas; Tigris and 
Euphrates Rivers flow east to the Persian Gulf; Mt. 
Ararat, north; Mt. Sinai, south, near the Red Sea; 
Jerusalem and Damascus, near the Mediterranean, are 
important cities. 

Malay Archipelago. —These islands are situated 
between Asia and Australia. With the exception of the 
Philippines, (See U. S. History) they belong to Holland. 
They are peopled by 40,000,000, mostly Malays. They 
are Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, Java, Philippines, Moluc¬ 
cas and numerous smaller islands. The area of the 


44 


Cummings'' Encyclopaedia. 


Malays is about 630,000 square miles. Manila, on the 
Philippines, and Batavia, on Java, are the largest cities. 
Java exports, coffee; Moluccas, spices; Sumatra, India- 
rubber and gutta-percha ; Philippines, sugar and tobacco; 
Borneo, diamonds and gold. 

AFRICA. 

Physical — Political. 

PHYSICAL. 

Africa is an Island-Continent, situated between the 
Atlantic Ocean on the west, and the Indian Ocean on 
the east; with the Mediterranean Sea on the north, and 
the Antarctic on the south. It is largely in the tor¬ 
rid zone. Africa may be divided into the Mediterranean 
countries, with the Atlas Mountains and the great 
Sahara Desert to the south; countries of the Nile Valley 
in the north-east; countries of the south and east coast; 
Atlantic coast countries; the great Congo Valley and 
Soudan in the center. In size, Africa ranks next to 
Asia. 

Islands. —Socotra, Asumption, Comorro and Mada¬ 
gascar, off the east coast; St. Helena, St. Thomas and 
Fernando Po, off south-west coast; Canary, Madeira 
and Azores, to the north-west. 

Gulfs, Bays, Etc. —Red Sea and Gulf cf Aden, 
north-east: Indian Ocean and Mozambique Channel, 
east; Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic, west. 

Capes. —Bon, north of Tunis; Guardafui, north¬ 
east point; Delgado, from Zanguebar; Corrientes, from 
Sofala; Good Hope, southern point of Cape Colony; 
Frio and Lopez, Lower Guinea; Palmas, south Liberia; 
Verde, west Senegambia; Blanco, north-west. 

Rivers. — Nile: source, Abyssinian Mountains; 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


45 


mouth, Mediterranean. Zambezi: source, central part 
of southern Africa; mouth, Mozambique Channel. 
Orange: source, southern Africa; mouth, Atlantic. 
Congo : source, central Africa; mouth, Atlantic. Niger : 
source, Lake Debo; mouth, Gulf of Guinea. Senegal: 
source, eastern Senegambia; mouth, Atlantic. 

Lakes. —Debo, in western Soudan; Tchad, eastern 
Soudan; Albert Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, Tanganyika 
and Nyassa, south-eastern Africa. 

POLITICAL. 

With the exception of Morocco, Liberia, Orange 
Free State and South African Republic, Africa is a 
Colonial Continent. Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt and Abys¬ 
sinia are Semi-dependencies, with each their share of 
domineering from England, Italy and Turkey. Morocco 
is a kingdom governed by a Sultan; Morocco and Fez, 
the leading cities; exports, leather and wool. South of 
the Sahara, on the Atlantic coast, are Senegambia (to 
France) ; Sierra Leone (to England), and Liberia (a 
Negro Republic) ; Upper Guinea and Lower Guinea con¬ 
sist of English, French, German, Spanish and Portu¬ 
guese possessions. 

The Congo State, south-central Africa, is under 
Belgian rule. Central Soudan, to the north, is practi¬ 
cally unexplored; this is termed ‘‘Darkest Africa.” 
Cape Colony, Natal and Griqua (to England); South 
African Republic and Orange Free State, Independencies; 
Sofala and Mozambique (to Portugal); Z mguebar (to 
Germany); Madagascar and St. Helena (to France). 

AUSTRALASIA. 

A ustralia— Tasmania—New Zealand — Melanesia. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia is an island continent situated south-east 


46 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 


of Asia, and between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It 
is two-thirds the size of the United States. The soil is 
fertile and the climate tropical. The one great river, 
the Murray, courses through the south-east part. It is 
a colony of England, and the government is like that of 
Canada. The provinces are West Australia, North 
Australia, Alexandria Land, South Austialia, New 
South Wales, Victoria and Queen’s Land. Melbourne, 
in Victoria ; Sydney, in New South Wales, and Adelaide, 
in South Australia, are important cities. 

TASMANIA-NEW ZEALAND—MELANESIA-POLYNESIA. 

Tasmania and New Zealand. —Tasmania lies just 
south of Australia; New Zealand still to the east. Both 
are possessions of England. 

Melanesia and Polynesia. — These are general 
groups of islands lying north-east of Australia. The 
greatest of the Melanesia is New Guinea (to France and 
Germany). The South Sea, Sandwich, Society and 
Fiji Groups, comprise the Polynesia. 

races. 

Caucasian — Mongolian — Ethiopian — Malay — Indian. 

Caucasian. — Their distinguishing characteristics 
are high color, regular features, fine wavy hair and 
heavy beard. They inhabit America, Europe and its 
colonies. 700,000,000. 

Mongolian. —The Mongolian has yellow color, flat 
features and coarse hair. The 590,000,000 Chinese, 
Japanese, Turks and Esquimaux compose this race. 

Ethiopian. —Brown and black color, flat nose, short 
curly hair and scanty beard, are the distinguishing 
features of this race. The Ethiopian is the native 
African negro and his American descendants. There 
are 184,000,000. 


Cum m ings ’ Uncyclop cedi a . 


47 


Malay. —The 60,000,000 Malay are, in feature and 
manner, kin to the Mongolian. They inhabit the islands 
south of Asia. 

Indian. —Red or copper color, high cheek bones and 
scanty beard distinguish the Indian. There are 9,000,- 
000 scattered throughout North America and South 
America. 


PHYSICS 


Natural Philosophy — Pneumatics — Hydraulics — Ther- 
mics — Optics — Acoustics — Electricity . 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Matter—Motion and Force-Cohesion and Adhesion — 

Gravitation. 

MATTER. 

Matter is anything that occupies space. A general 
property of matter is a property common to all matter, 
as; all matter may he divided, hence divisibility is a 
general property. Property not common to all matter 
is specific property . 

MOLECULES AND ATOMS. 

A Molecule is a minute portion of matter; an atom 
is a minute portion of a molecule. There are great 
numbers of atoms in a molecule; there are a great 
number of molecules in matter. 

CHANGE. 

A Physical Change of matter does not destroy the 
molecules, as the desolving of sugar; a chemical change 
makes new molecules by changing the specific property, 
as the burning of coal. 


48 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


49 


GENERAL PROPERTY. 

Extension is the property of occupying space. 
Impenetrability is the property of occupying space ex¬ 
clusively ; no two bodies can occupy the same space at 
the same time. Divisibility is the property of separa¬ 
tion into parts. Porosity is the property of having 
pores. Inertia is the negative property of passiveness; 
matter can not put itself in motion when at rest, nor 
come to rest when in motion. Indestructibility is that 
property which renders matter incapable of destruction; 
the form may be destroyed but the atoms remain the 
same. 


SPECIFIC PROPERTIES. 

Dcctility is that property by which matter may be 
drawn into wire. Malleability is that property which 
permits matter to be hammered or rolled into a sheet. 
Tenacity is the property of matter which makes pulling 
apart difficult. Elasticity is the property admitting of 
compression, extension, twisting or bending. Hardness 
is that property of matter making difficult of penetra¬ 
tion or indentation. Brittleness is the property by 
which matter is easily broken. 

MOTION AND FORCE. 

Motion is a change of place. Force produces or 
destroys motion. Resistance comes from friction and 
from particles displaced. Momentum is a term given 
to the product of a body’s mass multiplied by its veloc¬ 
ity. 

Three Laws of Motion.— 1. A body set in motion 
would continue in a straight line unless opposed in its 
course by some external force. 2. A force acting on a 
body in motion or at rest, produces the same effect 


60 


Cummings ’ Encyclopcedia. 


whether it acts alone or with other forces. 3. Action 
is equal to reaction ancl in the contrary direction. 

Curve Motion. —An instantaneous force and a con¬ 
tinuous force acting upon a body together will produce 
a curved motion, as; a stone thrown through the air by 
an instantaneous force is acted upon by the continuous 
force of gravitation, drawing it in a curved line to the 
ground. 

Circular Motion. —This motion is illustrated by 
the motion of a sling in the hands of a boy, as he uses 
it to throw a stone. 

Reflected Motion. —This motion may be illustra¬ 
ted by throwing an elastic ball against a solid surface. 

Energy. —Energy is an innate power to accomplish ; 
a standing tree possesses actual energy; if felled the 
actual energy is changed, without loss, to potential 
energy. 

COHESION-ADHESION-SOLUTION-GRAVITATION. 

Cohesion is the force which binds together matter 
containing like molecules. 

Adhesion is the force which binds together matter 
containing different molecules. 

Solution. —Sugar will dissolve in water because the 
force of adhesion in the two substances has overcome 
the force of cohesion between the molecules of the 
sugar. 

Gravitation is an attraction by which all bodies 
are drawn toward the center of the earth; the "weight of 
a body is the measure of gravitation. The weight of a 
body above the earth’s surface decreases as the square 
of the distance from the center of the earth increases. 
That point on the body of any portion of matter where 
it will balance, is its center of gravity. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


51 


REMARKS. 

1. A cubic foot of stone in the steeple of a church, 
will weigh less than a cubic foot of the same kind of 
stone at the basement of the church, because the steeple 
is farther from the center of gravitation. 

2. The earth’s surface curves eight inches per mile ; 
for this reason no two perpendicular bodies of like di¬ 
mensions can ever be parallel. 

3. An ounce of gold per Klondike weight is not so 
valuable as an ounce of gold per equatorial w r eight; 
why? The gravitation being stronger at Klondike, it 
would not require as much gold for an ounce as at the 
equator. 

4. The outer rail on a railroad curve is higher than 
the inner, so that the force of gravity may regulate the 
centrifugal force. 

HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. 

HYDROSTATICS. 

Hydrostatics is the science which treats of liquids 
at rest. 

Pressure. —The particles of liquids move freely 
upon each other. A certain measure of pressure upon 
any point given produces that same measure of pressure 
at all points and in all directions. The bottle of water 
illustration. If a pressure of one pound is put upon a 
cork that has a bottom surface of one square inch, the 
pounds pressure tending to burst the bottle will equal 
the number of square inches in its inner surface; if the 
inner surface is 100 inches, there will be 100 pounds 
pressure. 

THE FOUR LAWS OF EQUILIBRIUM. 

1. Liquids at rest press downward, upward and 
sidewise with equal force. 


52 


Cum m ings ’ JEncy cl op cedi a. 


2. Pressure increases according to depth; a square- 
foot pressure, at one foot deep, equals the weight of one 
cubic foot of water (62^ lbs. or 1,000 ozs.), at two feet, 
twice that amount and so on. 

3. The pressure does not depend on the size or 
shape of the vessel. 

4. Water seeks its level. 

Water Level. —We say water is level, yet there is 
a curvature of eight inches per mile to correspond with 
the curve of the earth’s surface. 

Specific Gravity. —Water at 39.2 degrees F., is 
the standard used in computing the specific gravity of 
solids and liquids. In computing the specific gravities 
of gases, that of air is taken as the standard. To se¬ 
cure an accurate measurement of the specific gravity of 
air, a uniform temperature is necessary; as heat ex¬ 
pands and cold contracts. 

Specific Gravities. —Gold, 19.34; Silver, 10.5; 
Lead, 11.36; Copper, 8.9; Cast-iron, 7.21; Platinum, 
21.53; Zinc, 7.15; Diamond, 3.5; Ice, .93; Chalk, 2.65; 
Glass, 2.76; Sulphur, 2.; Cork, .24; Milk, 1.03. 

Water. —Water is pure and fresh when there is no 
foreign matter dissolved in its pores. Any solid that 
will entirely dissolve in water does not add to its vol¬ 
ume but increases its density. Salt dissolved in pores 
of water increases its density and therefore its buoy¬ 
ancy. 


COMPUTATIONS. 

1. To find the upward pressure on a vessel. —Multi¬ 
ply the area of the bottom by the depth, and then by 
the weight of a cubic foot of water (62| lbs. or 1,000 
oz.). Example: A vessel with a bottom 100 feet by 
200 feet is sunk 10 feet in the water; what is its weight? 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


53 


Solution: 100 feet multiplied by 200 feet, and this by 
10 feet, equals the number of cubic feet; this multiplied 
by the weight of a cubic foot, 62| lbs., will give the 
weight : 100x200x 10x624-4-2,000=6,250 tons. 

2. To find the specific gravity of a solid .— Divide 
its weight in the air, by the difference between its weight 
in the air and its weight in the water; this will give the 
specific gravity, as: 10 ozs. of sulphur will weight 5 ozs. 
in water, hence, 10^-5=2, the specific gravity. 

3. The volume given , to find the weight. —Multiply 
the weight of a cubic foot of water by the specific grav¬ 
ity of the substance, and this by the number of cubic 
feet. Example : What is the weight of 10 cubic feet 
of ice? Solution: 1,000 ozs., multiplied by its specific 
gravity, .93, multiplied by 10, equals 9,300 ozs., or 
5814 lbs - 

4. The weight given , to find the volume. —Multiply 
the specific gravity of the substance by the weight of a 
cubic foot of water, and divide by the given weight of 
the substance. 


HYDRAULICS. 

Hydraulics. —The science of Hydraulics treats of 
liquids in motion. 

Rivers. —A fall of 3 inches per mile will give 
motion to water at a velocity equal to the same number 
of miles per hour. A fall of 3 to 4 feet per mile is 
equivalent to a mountain torrent. The water in the 
center of a deep river will flow more rapidly than that 
at the shores and bottom, owing to the resisting force of 
friction. 

Waves. —Waves result from the friction of the wind 
upon the surface of the water, acting in opposition to 
the contrary force of gravitation. It is practically true 


54 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


that the form of the wave only progresses onward, the 
water does not. Nearing the land, the wave grows 
shorter and is forced forward by the deep water, where, 
struggling with the resisting force of friction given by 
the sand, it breaks upon the shore. 

PNEUMATICS AND METEOROLOGY. 

Pneumatics is the science which treats of the prop¬ 
erty of gases; air being the most abundant gas it is taken 
as the standard. 

Meteorology is the science of air. 

Air. —The air is composed of nearly 79 parts 
nitrogen, 21 parts oxygen and .04 parts carbonic-acid 
gas. The air extends from 50 to 500 miles from the 
earth. The density of the air decreases as the altitude 
increases. A cubic foot of air weighs 1 ounce. 

The air exerts a continuous pressure of about 15 
pounds to the square inch of surface. This pressure is 
estimated to be from 14 to 16 tons upon a grown person. 
We do not notice this pressure because it is uniform, 
coming from within as well as from without. The 
density of the air has much to do with the pressure. 

Vacuum. —A vacuum is a space devoid of all matter, a 
space from which all or nearly all the air has been 
forced. There is a great rush of air toward a vacuum; 
the lightning forces a vacuum in the air for a moment, 
and the terrible rush of the air back into this vacuum, 
causes that roar known as thunder. 

Clouds. —A cloud is a formation of vapor; heated 
air causes the air to rise, and when it has risen to a 
cooler region, it is condensed into clouds. 

Kinds of Clouds. —The Stratus lies in broad exten¬ 
sive belts, and floats very low. The Nimbus is a dark 
rain-cloud, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 5,000 feet. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


55 


The Cumulus is a vast cloud floating at an altitude of 
from 3,000 to 10,000 feet. The Cirrus is a fleecy cloud 
floating far to the heavenward, from 10,000 to 24,000 
feet. 

Wind. —Wind is air put in motion by atmospheric 
changes. 

Trade Winds. —The hot air of the equator rises and 
floats toward the poles; the cool air of the polar region, 
in turn, rushes toward the equator to supply its place; 
the earth, as it revolves from west to east, varies these 
winds, and gives us the North-east winds and the South¬ 
east winds. The simoon. This is a term given to the 
terrible hot wind of the desert. A whirlwind is the 
result of the meeting of two violent currents of wind. A 
hurricane is caused by the wind making a circuit, and 
blowing from many points of the compass at the same 
time. A cyclone is a violent rotary, or circular current; 
those of the southern hemisphere blow in the direction 
of the hands of a clock, while in the northern hemis¬ 
phere, this order is reversed. 

Rain. —Rain is formed by a sudden fall of tempera¬ 
ture, condensing the vapor of the air into drops. 

Snow. —If the change in the atmosphere which 
causes the rain drives the temperature sufficiently low, 
the vapor is frozen during the change and before it 
forms into drops, resulting in flakes of snow. 

Hail. —Hail is the result of a milder temperature, 
and differs from snow in that the vapor reaches the form 
of a drop before it is frozen. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. Air Pressure. —Place a paper over a glass of 
water, invert the glass, and the upward pressure of the 
air will prevent the escape of the water. 


56 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


2. Flies are able to walk on the ceiling, because 
the air pressure toward the vacuum made by their feet 
overcomes the force of gravitation. 

3. Fog and Mist. —These are caused by the cool 
air coming in contact with the warm earth. Dew is 
caused by the warm air coming in contact with the cool 
earth. 

4. A pitcher filled with icewater standing in a 
warm place, or a stone in a cool place on a hot day, 
seems to sw^eat; this is caused by their cool surface 
attracting the vapor from the hot air surrounding them. 

5. Clouds sometimes gather around mountain tops 
because the temperature is cooler there than the 
surrounding air, and condenses the vapor into clouds. 

6. A hurricane blows at the rate of 60 to 130 miles 
per hour. 

7. The earth absorbs the sun’s heat more rapidly 
than the water; the hot air rises and is replaced by the 
cool air from the ocean; this is the “Sea Breeze” which 
prevails from 8 o’clock a. m., to 3 o’clock p. m. The 
water retains the heat longer than the land, and the 
“Land Breeze” is the reverse order, prevailing until 
sunset. 


THERMICS. 

Thermics is the science which treats of heat and 
its uses. 

Heat. —Heat is motion ; the molecules of solids are 
surrounded by ether and are constantly vibrating. A 
vibration of the molecules of the solid and those of the 
ether each tend to set the other in motion; the more 
rapid this vibration, the greater the heat. 

Heat Sources. —The sun and stars are the general 
sources of heat; there are also mechanical and chemical 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


57 


sources. The vibration of the molecules of the sun and 
stars set great waves of ether in motion; these waves, 
as they traverse the intervening atmosphere, give up 
their motion (heat) to the earth. Friction produces 
heat by increasing the motion of the molecules of the 
bodies in contact. 

Fires are the result of a contact between the nitro¬ 
gen and the carbon of the fuel, and the oxygen of the 
air; the shock of the contact causes the molecules to 
vibrate, the ether is set in motion, resulting in a flame 
or wave of heat. 

Effect of Heat. —-The heat-force increases the 
energy of the molecules, and raises the temperature of 
a bod} r . Heat also lengthens the vibrations of the mol¬ 
ecules, thus increasing their size; from this we have the 
general law, that heat expands, and cold contracts. 

Boiling Water.— 1 . Salt water or water with any 
foreign matter in it, requires a higher temperature at 
the boiling point than does pure water. 2. Water will 
boil at a lower point in an iron vessel, than in one of 
glass. 3. Pressure affects the boiling point, which is 
reached sooner in the rare atmosphere of a mountain 
than the dense atmosphere of the valley. 

Heat will communicate itself to surrounding 
bodies. 

Conduction. —Heat will transmit itself through 
bodies, from molecule to molecule. Copper and silver 
are the best metallic conductors of heat. Snow, fur and 
gaseous matters, are non-conductors. 

Radiation is the transmission of heat rays in 
straight lines. Rough surfaces are the best radiators of 
heat. 


58 


Cummings' Ency clop (edict. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. It is estimated that but a twenty-three-hundred- 
millionth of the sun’s heat reaches the earth. 

2. The law of contraction and expansion is illus¬ 
trated in the work of the blacksmith; he heats the 
wagon tire before fitting it to the wheel, so that, as it 
contracts in cooling, it will bind the wheel. 

3. In daylight, a body will become luminous at 
1,000° F.; in the dark, at 700° F. Red heat is reached 
at 1,000° F., white heat at 1,400° to 3,200° F. 

4. Furs and woolens are said to be warm clothing 
because, being porous, they are gaseous, and for this 
reason, they are good non-conductors; they do not per¬ 
mit the heat of the body to escape. Snow is the greatest 
non-conductor of heat; the absence of frost under great 
bodies of snow, is due to the inability of the earth’s 
heat to escape through the snow. We speak of cotton 
clothing as being cooler than wool; this is because 
it is less gaseous and, therefore, a better conductor 
of heat; the body’s heat escapes more readily. We 
all know the uses to which asbestos is put; this is 
because it is, next to snow, the greatest non-conductor 
of heat. 

5. The heat or temperature of the normal body, is 
98° F. Eggs hatch at a temperature of 104° F. Mer¬ 
cury freezes at 39£° below zero. 2,786° F. will melt 
cast-iron. Gold will melt at 2,016° F. 

acoustics. 

Acoustics is the science of sound. 

Sound is a sensation on the ear, produced by vibra¬ 
tions of the air. Hearing is a function of the ear and 
brain; the ear transmits the sensation to the brain, the 
brain interprets it. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


69 


Transmission. —A sound is the result of vibration; a 
vibration is the result of a condensation and a rarefac¬ 
tion of the air. A condensation and a rarefaction of a 
vibration, correspond to the crest and hollow of a water- 
wave, respectively. If the air be entirely exhausted, 
as in a vacuum, there can be no sound; without a vi¬ 
bration there is no sound. 

Velocity. —Velocity is regulated by the elasticity 
and density of the matter penetrated. A rise in tem¬ 
perature diminishes the density. The rarer the air, the 
fewer the molecules and the greater the velocity. In 
water and solids, however, the velocity is greater al¬ 
though the density is greater also; this is due to the 
elasticity of the molecules. Sound travels through air, 
when at 32° F., at 1,090 feet per second; through water, 
at 4,700 feet per second. 

Intensity. —Sound is loudest where the molecules 
are the most numerous. 

Speaking Tubes. —A speaking tube confines the 
waves of sound, directs their course, and thus preserves 
their intensity. 

An Ear-trumpet. —This useful article is so arrang¬ 
ed as to collect, condense and convey the sound-wave to 
the ear. 

Refraction. —Sounds are made audible by refrac¬ 
tion that would not otherwise be heard. 

Reflection. —When a sound wave strikes another 
medium, a part only proceeds, the balance is reflected. 
The sounding board, the echo, and the roar of the sea- 
shell, are good illustrations of this principle; it is em¬ 
ployed to advantage in the interior arrangement of lec¬ 
ture halls and theatres. 

Decrease of Sound. —Sound decreases as the square 
of the distance increases. Repeated reflections tend to 


60 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


decrease the sound; certain clouds decrease the sound 
because their va^ing moisture occasions a repeated 
reflection. 

Music and Noise.— Rapid and uniform vibrations 
strike the ear pleasantly—this is music; slow and irreg¬ 
ular vibrations grate upon the ear—this is noise. 
The Pitch depends on the vibrations; the more rapid 
the vibrations, the higher the pitch. Tune.- —Vocal and 
instrumental music are in unison of tone (in tune) 
when the vibrations are alike; the sound waves are of 
uniform length. 

Three Laws. —1. The vibrations per second in¬ 
crease as the length of the cord decreases. 2. The vi¬ 
brations per second increase as the square root of the 
tension. 3. The number of vibrations per second de¬ 
creases as the square root of the weight of the chord 
increases. 


ELECTRICITY. 

Magnetic — Frictional — Voltaic — Thermal—Animal. 

MAGNETIC ELECTRICITY. 

A Magnet is that something which possesses the 
power of attraction. An iron ore called load stone 
(Saxon-— laedan , to lead), is the natural magnet; the 
artificial magnet is a magnetized steel bar. The earth, 
with its poles, is the great and universal magnet. Like 
poles repel, unlike poles attract. 

Induction. Induction is the power possessed by a 
magnet to develop magnetism in iron or steel. A piece 
of iron brought near a magnet, assumes its magnetism, 
but when removed it loses it; steel retains it. 

Phe Compass. The compass is a magnetic needle 
used by mariners and by surveyors. The polar-mag- 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


61 


netism of the earth gives direction to the needle; a 
direction which is practically uniform, north and south. 
A variation of the Terrestrial Magnet, causes a vibra¬ 
tion and variation altering slightly the direction of the 
needle. 

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 

Electricity may be generated by rubbing bodies 
together. It is frictional electricity which has become 
the great and important factor in commerce and in 
science. You may demonstrate the theory of frictional 
electricity by rubbing the feet over a brussels carpet; 
in this way sufficient electricity can be generated and 
conducted through the body to enable one to light the 
gas with the linger. 

A Conductor. A conductor is any body through 
which electricity will pass. Copper is the best con¬ 
ductor. Electricity will not penetrate glass, silk or 
wood, hence, these are the best non-conductors. 

Lightning. Lightning is the coming together of 
two clouds charged with opposite currents of electricity. 
When these currents meet they seem to, and do, split 
the air, and then dart off in the direction of least re¬ 
sistance; this is generally in a zigzag course. The 
“ thunder ” is the rush of the air back into the vacuum 
made by the violent displacement of the air. That 
lightning whose course we can easily trace, is chain- 
lightning ; that seen as but a flash, is sheet-lightning; 
where the distant charges are only reflected, is termed 
heat-lightning. 

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 

The Currents used in Telegraphy are generated 
from copper and zinc plates. The telegraphic current 
passes through the whole substance of the wire from 


62 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


molecule to molecule, and not, as would appear, on the 
surface of the wire. These metallic sheets are called 
a galvanic pair. A Battery consists of several galvanic 
or voltaic pairs; this is done to strengthen and steady 
the current. 

THERMAL AND ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. 

Thermal. Thermal electricity is that generated 
from heat. There is a general law that heat may be 
changed into electricity as well as electricity into heat. 

Animal. Every animal that is in proper health, 
possesses in its body and hair a certain amount of 
electricity; this is termed animal electricity. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. It is estimated that electricity will travel in a 
copper wire, 194,000 miles per second. 

2. The flickering of the arc-light, as we see it, is 
but the waste of the carbon and the adjustment of the 
same by the motor and automatic regulator. 

3. A charged wire may be handled with the bare 
hand, if it is insulated by some non-conducting mater¬ 
ial. 

4. A Duplex telegraph permits two messages to be 
sent on one wire, in opposite directions at the same 
time. 

6. A Diplex, permits two messages to be sent in 
the same direction, at the same time. 

6. The Quadruplex (Edison’s invention), permits 
the sending of four messages in contrary directions at 
the same time. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 68 

OPTICS. 

Optics is the science which treats of light. 

LIGHT. 

A body is luminous that emits light; the substance 
through which light passes is the medium. A trans¬ 
parent body is one that does not obstruct the light. A 
translucent body is one that admits some light but not 
enough to discern bodies. A body is said to be opaque, 
which admits no light. A ray is a single line of light. 
A beam is a collection of rays. 

THE THREE LAWS. 

1. Light emits itself in all directions. 

2. Rays of light travel in a straight line. 

3. The intensity of light decreases as the square 
of the distance increases. 

VELOCITY. 

The waves of ethereal light pass through space at 
the rate of 186,000 miles per second. 

REFLECTION. 

Light, as it strikes a surface, is divided into two 
parts; one of these parts enters the body while the other 
is reflected back. The smoother the surface, the 
stronger and more direct the reflected rays. The 
image as seen in a looking glass or through water with 
a smooth surface, is an illustration of reflected light. 

REFRACTION. 

Light is refracted, when it passes obliquely from 
one medium to another. Ex., a spoon when placed in 
clear tea, appears to bend below the surface; an oar 
seems to bend as it strikes the surface of clear water. 


64 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


LAWS OF REFRACTION. 

1. A ray of light passing into a rarer medium is 
bent from the perpendicular. 

2. A ray of light passing into a denser medium is 
bent toward the perpendicular. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. Objects are seen dimly on entering a room from 
the bright outside light, because the pupils of the eyes 
had adjusted themselves to the bright light by contrac¬ 
tion, and must now expand to adjust themselves to the 
change in the degrees of light. 

2. Dawn and Twilight.— The dawn and twilight, 
before and after the sun’s appearance, are the result of 
the reflection and refraction of the sunlight by the 
lighter atmosphere. 

3. Aurora Borealis. —This phenomenon is sup¬ 
posed to be the electrical condition of the rarefied atrnos- 
phereof the higher regions. 

4. An Ignis Fatuus. —This light, seen in marshy 
swamps and graveyards, is due to the animal and vege¬ 
table gases becoming ignited by contact with the atmos¬ 
phere. This “Will o’ the Wisp” will move if 
approached, because of the disturbance of the atmos¬ 
phere. 

5. Color is but the mind’s perception of the solar 
spectrum reflected to the eye; it does not exist in 
substance. 


ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Anatomy — Physiology — Hygiene. 

Anatomy. —This science describes the known parts 
of the known body. Anatomy may be studied in the 
lifeless body, 


Cummings ’ j Encyclopedia. 


65 


Physiology. —The science of physiology describes 
the cause, manner and effect of the action of the parts. 
Unlike anatomy, which is wholly known, the science of 
physiology is still in course of development, hence must 
be studied in the living body. 

Hygiene.— The science of hygiene consists of a 
common-sense use of a knowledge of physiology, with 
good health in view. 

BONES AND JOINTS. 

BONES. 

Bones are composed of one-third animal and tw T o- 
thirds mineral matter. The mineral matter of bones 
consists largely of phosphate of lime. Some bones are 
hollow, while others are seemingly solid. All bones are 
supplied with nerves and blood vessels. The marrow of 
a bone is the food reserve. The periosteum is a mem¬ 
branous covering of the bone, and is filled with blood¬ 
vessels which transmit the blood to the bones through 
small (Haversian) cells. The bones form the skeleton 
which protects the delicate internal organs; it adds 
firmness and grace of outline to the body. In the action 
of muscles the bones play the part of levers. 

JOINTS. 

Immovable—Slightly Movable—Freely Movable. 

Joints consist of two or more bones joined by liga¬ 
ments. The ends of the bones are covered by a smooth 
gristle. The joint cavity is lined with a synovial 
membrane which gives out synovia or joint water. 

Immovable Joints are those of the bones of the 
head. 

Slightly Movable Joints are those between the 
vertebrae of the back bone. 


GO 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


FreelyMovable Joints are all joints not of the 
above classes. 

SKELETON (206 bones). 

Head. —The bones of the head are 1 Occipital, 2 
Parietal, 2 Temporal, 1 Frontal, 1 Sphenoid, 1 Ethnoid, 
2 Nasal, 1 Vomer, 2 Turbinated. The Occipital bone is 
at the base of the skull. The Parietal bones are bones 
of the side of the skull. The Temporal bones are those 
of the temple. The Frontal bone is the forehead. The 
Sphenoid and the Ethnoid are behind the face. The 
Nasal bones make up the bridge of the nose. The Vomer 
and Turbinated bones are the interior nasal bones. 

trunk (52 bones). 

Backbone—Hyoid — Ribs — Sternum. 
backbone (26 bones). 

V ertebrae — Sacrum — Coccyx. 

The Vertebrae (Latin, vertere , to turn).—These 
bones form an axis permitting a turning motion of the 
body. There are 24 vertebrae, irregular shaped hollow 
bones, joined by iibro-cartilage into a column consti¬ 
tuting the spinal column, the great nerve center of the 
body. 

The Sacrum, a continuation of the spinal column, 
is a wedge-shaped bone, that fits between the hip bones. 

The Coccyx consists of small bones, united by 
joints forming the extreme point of the column. 

hyoid—ribs—sternum (26 bones). 

The Hyoid is a small bone of the neck to which is 
attached the base of the tongue. 

The Sternum (breast bone).—This is a narrow flat 
bone forming the center line of the chest to which are 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


67 


attached the collar bone and the cartilages of the ribs. 

Ribs. —There are 24 ribs, 12 on each side; 7 true 
and 5 false. Of tbe false, the last two are called float¬ 
ing ribs. True ribs are joined directly to the sternum; 
the false, to wings of the breast bone. The floating 
have no bone connection in front. 

upper limbs (64 bones). 

Shoulder — Arm — Forearm — Hand. 

Scapula (shoulder blade). This is a three-cor¬ 
nered flat bone capping the shoulder, into which the 
arm fits. 

Clavicle (collar bone). The clavicle is a curve¬ 
shaped bone connecting the breast bone and shoulder 

blade. 

* 

Humerus (arm-bone). This extends from shoulder 
to elbow. 

Radius and ulna (fore-arm). These extend from 
elbow to wrist; the radius, in the thumb side, permits 
the rolling motion. 

Carpus (wrist), contains eight bones, irregular in 
shape and size, joined by ligaments. 

Metacarpus (hand), five slightly curved bones 
forming the palm. 

Phalanges (fingers), fourteen bones. 

lower limbs. (62 bones.) 

HIP-THIGH-LEG-FOOT. 

Innominatum (hip). These two irregular shaped 
bones, with the sternum, form the walls of the Pelvis. 

Femur (thigh), the bone extending from hip to 
knee. 

Tibia and fibula (leg). The Tibia extends from 


68 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


knee to foot; its front is the shin. The Fibula is a 
small bone joined to the Tibia at knee and ankle. 

Tars os (ankle, heel, instep), consists of seven 
hones, irregular in shape, joined by ligaments. 

The Mettarsus (flat of foot), consists of five 
hones. 

Phalanges (toes), consist of fourteen bones. 

muscles. 

voluntary—involuntary. 

Muscles (flesh) are organs of motion, and are vol¬ 
untary and involuntary, as they obey the will or act 
independent of it. The heart and intestinal muscles 
act independent of the will, hence are involuntary. 
Muscles are of different size, length and shape and 
possess the property of shortening themselves. Volun¬ 
tary muscles are usually joined at either end by bones, 
or by glistening cords of fibrous tissue. These are 
called tendons or aponeurosis , according as they may 
join round or Jlat muscles. Of the more than five hun¬ 
dred muscles in the body, the stapedius of the ear is 
the smallest. The sartorius , which extends from the 
hip to the leg below the knee, is the largest. The bi¬ 
ceps join the shoulder blade by a double tendon, and 
extend to the radius below the elbow. 1 he pictorial 
joins the breast bone to the arm at the shoulder. The 
gastrocnemius forms most of the calf of the leg. The 
Achilles tendon is inserted into the heel. 

ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO. 

1. An intemperate use of alcohol makes the mus¬ 
cles fatty, flabby and feeble. 

2. An intemperate use of tobacco undermines mus¬ 
cular vitality. 


Cummings' HJncyclop&dia,. 


69 


BLOOD. 

Blood is the life of the body, and is made largely 
of very small coin-shaped bodies called globules or cor¬ 
puscle <?. Most of these are red and some white. A red 
corpuscle is 1-3200 of an inch in diameter. Red cor¬ 
puscles abound in the blood of all animals with a back¬ 
bone, but the human alone are round. Those of ani¬ 
mals are smaller (except the elephant and sloth) and of 
oval shape. The red corpuscles attract the oxygen 
from the air and transmit it to all parts of the body. 
The blood absorbs the nutriment and conveys it to the 
tissues and gathers the waste-matter, conveying it to 
the proper organs. The normal body contains about 
seven quarts of blood. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Bad air, being charged with gases and lack¬ 
ing oxygen, injures the blood. 

2. Lack of proper exercise makes the blood slug¬ 
gish and waste-matters accumulate. 

3. Too much or too rich food overloads the blood 
and it cannot discharge the surplus. 

4. Too little or too poor blood starves the system. 

5. The intemperate use of alcohol retards the 
work of the blood; it gives an undue stimulus to the 
appetite, or completely destroys it. 

CIRCULATION. 

PULMONARy-SYSTEMIC. 

Heart — Arteries — Veins. 

s 

HEART. 

The heart is a hollow pear-shaped body of muscle 
about the size of a man’s hand, situated in the chest 


70 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


at loft of breast bone, with the apex resting on the 
diaphragm (a partition betweeen the chest and stom¬ 
ach). It is enclosed in a sack (pericardium) of like 
shape but reversed position. 

The heart-covering and lining of the pericardium 
give out a soft fluid which prevents friction. Muscle 
partitions from base to apex, and crossing the heart, 
divide it into four cavities; the lower, ventricles , the 
upper, auricles ; these are designated as right and left. 

ARTERIES-VEINS-CAPILLARIES. 

Arteries carry the blood from the heart; they 
subdivide and finally end in capillaries. These capil¬ 
laries in turn unite to form veins, which grow larger 
and fewer, reaching the heart in two large veins, the 
vena cava superior , and the vena cava inferior . The 
walls of the capillaries are porous and the blood gives 
out its nutriment through these walls. The tissues in 
return collect the waste mattter from the system and 
carry it off. 

PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 

The pulmonary, or lesser circulation, starts from 
the right ventricle, passes through the pulmonary ar¬ 
tery, reaching the lungs in capillaries. From the 
capillaries in the lungs, it flows back through the Pul¬ 
monary veins to the left auricle. 

systemic circulation. 

The systemic, or greater circulation," starts from 
the left ventricle, flows through the great aorta , dis¬ 
tributing itself to all parts of-the body, returning to the 
right auricle through the vena cava inferior and the 
vena cava superior. The principal arteries assume par¬ 
ticular names in different parts of the body; as femoral 


Cumrnings' Encyclopceclia. 


71 


in the thigh; tibial , in the leg; carotid , in the neck. 
The arteries lie deeper than the veins. The large veins 
of the neck are called jugular. The veins of the 
greater circulation carry blue blood, and the arte¬ 
ries, the red; this order is reversed in the pulmonary 
circulation. The lungs take in the oxygen and send 
the blood back to the heart, red and pure, in the Pul¬ 
monary veins. 

ALCOHOL. 

1. Alcohol will change muscle into fat; the heart 
can not do its work. The arteries are also injured; if 
those in the brain burst, apoplexy follows. 

2. Alcohol stimulates the heart to over work. 

FOOD. 

Of the fifteen elements of food, each contributes 
about these parts of a hundred: oxygen , 72; carbon 
13.5; hydrogen , 9.1; nitrogen 2.5; calcium , 1.3; phos¬ 
phorous , 1.15; sulphur , .1476; sodium , .1; chlorine , 

.085; fluorine , .08; potassium , .026; iron, .01; mag¬ 
nesium^ .0012; silicon , .0002; and a minute fraction of 
manganese. Food should contain all these parts, but 
oxygen, carbon and phosphorus are necessary to life. 
The earth, air and water contain these elements, but it 
is the especial work of the plant to take them in and 
prepare them for the animal. 

Milk combines all or most of these elements; hence 

alwavs the best food. 

«/ 

Eggs are the most compact as well as the most nu¬ 
tritious of foods. 

Meats.— Beef leads; Pork is strong but less whole¬ 
some ; Veal is less nourishing and harder to digest than 
beef; Lamb is easily digested; Mutton ranks next to 
beef. 


72 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


Fish.— Fish is best when fresh; it is lighter than 
meats. Oysters lead the shell-fish; Lobsters, Crabs, etc., 
are nutritious but difficult to digest. 

Starchy Foods. (Grain).— Wheat, Oats and Bice, 
when dried, contain respectively, 66, 60 and 88 parts of 
starch; the balance is mineral matter, fat, sugar and 
gluten. 

Vegetable.— Potatoes, principally starch, take first 
place. Peas and Beans are similar in nature; they are 
very nutritious but difficult to digest. Turnips, Beets, 
Cabbage, etc., are lighter and less nutritious foods. 

Sugar and Fat.— Sugar, besides the manufactured 
article, is found in most vegetables. Fat is found in 
vegetable and animal foods; butter is the fat of milk. 

STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS. 

Te a—C offe e — Tobacc o — A l coho l — Op ium — E t c . 

Tea and Coffee are rarely narcotics, but they are 
all stimulants or narcotics according as they are used 
moderately or excessively. Growing persons should use 
no stimulants except as medicine. Tea and coffee when 
used in moderation may aid digestion and soothe the 
nerves. An excessive use of either may ruin the ner¬ 
vous system. 

Tobacco. —An intemperate use of tobacco may 
poison the mouth and throat. It will ultimately destroy 
the appetite and injure the stomach and heart. 

Alcohol, used under a physician’s directions, may 
check the waste of a disease, but its abuse will also 
check the repair of the body. 

Opium and Chloral are drugs for the exclusive use 
of physicians. 


78 


Cummings ’ Pncyclopcedia. 

DIGESTION—ABSORPTION. 

Alimentary Canal—Lymphatic System. 
DIGESTION. 

ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

Mout h — Pharyn x — AE sophagu s — S tom a c h — I ntcs tin es. 

Digestion is the change food must undergo as a 
'preparation to its assimilation into the system. Process: 
The food is taken into the mouth where it is masticated 
by the teeth and mixed with the saliva; the tongue 
then rolls it to the throat muscle by which it is forced 
into the stomach where it mixes with the gastric juice; 
from the stomach it passes through the pylorous into the 
small intestines; here it is called chyme. The chyme 
now meets the bile and pancreatic juice ; these extract 
the fat and form the chyle. The chyme and chyle, 
passing on, are further digested by the intestinal juice. 

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 

Teetn—Salivary Giands — Stomach — Liver — Intestines. 

The Teeth. —There are two sets of teeth : the first 
come in childhood; the second set are generally com¬ 
plete at seventeen. In the second set there are: eight 
incisors, four canines, eight bicuspids and twelve 
molars', sixteen in each jaw. 

Salivary Glands. —Two parotid , the two largest, 
lying'under the ear; two submaxillary, on floor of mouth 
back; and two sublingual, on floor of mouth front; 
these give out the saliva or spittle. 

Stomach. —The stomach is situated at the lower 
border of ribs in front; it is ten or twelve inches long. 
It is lined with a membrane containing millions of 
glands giving out gastric juice during progress of di* 


74 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


gesfcion. The pylorus is the muscle-gate to the small in¬ 
testines. 

The Liver lies below the ribs to the right The work 
of the liver is to purify the blood, make glycogen (a 
reserve food), and make bile (a digestive fluid). 

Pancreas —This is a small organ lying back of the 
stomach; its function is to give out pancreatic juice 
which digests the fat. 

Muscles and Lining. —The muscles of the canal aid’ 
digestion by forcing the food in and kneading it, while 
the lining of the intestines gives out an intestinal juice 
for digestion. 

ABSORPTION. 

Blood Vessels — Lacteals. 

Absorption begins when digestion commences. The 
lining of the alimentary canal is full of blood vessels 
which are constantly taking up the nutriment from the 
digested matter. The chyme and chyle, as they pass 
in, give out their nutriment; the former through the 
usual course, the latter through the lacteals. This nu¬ 
triment is carried to all parts of the body to feed the 
living tissues. 

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

The Lymphatic System consists of a net work of 
tubes similar to the blood vessels. These tubes run 
along and beneath the blood vessels and act as the drain 
pipes of the bady ; they assist the blood in carrying off 
the refuse. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Food not properly masticated cannot digest. 

2. Sudden fear or great anger stops the flow of the 
juices. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 75 

8. There should be no mental effort during the 
meal. 

4. Too much food chokes the apparatus; some of 
the food won’t be digested, decomposition sets in and 
gas accumulates. 

5. Too much liquid weakens the juices. 

6. Very cold food stagnates digestion. 

7. Regular meals and proper exercise dispense with 
medicine. 

8. Alcohol separates the pepsin from the juices; 
this ruins their digestive property and irritates the 
stomach and kidneys. 

RESPIRATION—VOICE. 

AIR-LUNGS. 

Nose — Mouth — Throat — Larynx — Trachea — Bronchi. 

AIR. 

Nitrogen — Oxygen — Carbonic-acid Gas. 

Nitrogen. —Seventy-nine per cent of the air is nitro¬ 
gen; it has no life-giving property, its work being to 
dilute the oxygen. 

Oxygen. —This element comprises twenty-one per 
cent of the air; it is the life-sustaining element and 
makes up nearly four-fifths of the body. 

Carbonic-Acid Gas comprises only 4 per cent of the 
air. Animals live mainly on oxygen and give out car¬ 
bonic-acid gas. Plants live on carbonic-acid gas and 
give out oxygen. 

Source and Supply. —Oxygen is mainly an element 
of the air, and is supplied solely by the leaves of living 
plants. Carbonic-acid gas is largely of the earth. Its 
supply is kept up by fires , decaying matter and living 
animals. 


76 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


LUNGS. 

The Lungs consist of a mass of cells situated in the 
chest behind the breast bone, and are held in place by 
the plurce. The plurse are air tight sacks, covering the 
lungs and lining the chest. Their work is like that of 
the pericardium of the heart. A Breath , is the double 
act of receiving and expelling the air. The lungs ex¬ 
pand on receiving the air and contract to expel it. As 
the air enters the lungs the blood corpuscles attract and 
take up the oxygen, and the refuse is expelled. 

AIR PASSAGES. 

The nose, mouth, throat, windpipe and bronchial 
tubes are the air passages to the lungs. With the nose, 
mouth and throat, all are somewhat familiar. The 
windpipe is the main pipe extending from the mouth to 
the fork at the lungs. The peculiarly constructed top 
of the windpipe is the larynx (the voice box), the main 
body is the trachea. Approaching the lungs, the 
windpipe divides into two large branches, one to each 
lung; these are the bronchi. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Brain—Spinal Cord. 

BRAIN. 

Cerebrum — Cerebellum — Pons Varolii — Medulla Ob¬ 
longata. 

The Brain fills the main cavity of the skull and 
consists of several masses. Cerebrum, the principal 
mass; cerebellum, beneath and behind the cerebrum; 
the Pons Varolii, beneath the cerebrum and in front of 
the cerebellum ; the medulla oblongata, beneath the cer¬ 
ebellum, behind the Pons Varolii. Convolutions are 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


77 


the ridges in the surface of the cerebrum and cerebel¬ 
lum; they are a mafk of intelligence. 

SPINAL CORD. 

The Spinal Cord, the other great nerve-center, oc¬ 
cupies the spinal canal in the backbone. Where the 
spinal column ends, the cord divides, sending a branch 
to each lower limb. The brain and spinal cord are each 
wrapped in a three-ply covering of membrane. From 
each half of the brain twelve small cords go out through 
the skull. From each half of the spinal cord, thirty 
one, each with two roots, go off. These cords extend to 
every part of the body and constitute the Nervous 
System. 

Action of Nerves. —The cerebrum is the chief seat 
of action; it is as the main office of a great telegraph 
system—constantly sending and receiving messages. 
Out-going messages are carried by motor fibers ; the in¬ 
coming, by sensory fibers. Any actions of the nerves, 
independent of the will, are refiex actions ; such as di¬ 
gesting, breathing, sneezing, coughing, etc. An act of 
the will might become reflex by habit. 

ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO, 

1. Alcohol dethrones the reason and gives the 
baser passions dominion over it. 

2. Alcohol paralyzes the small nerves ; its action on 
the brain may cause epilepsy, paralysis or insanity. 

3. Tobacco shakes the nerves, weakens the stomach 
and heart and clouds the brain. 

THE SKIN. 

Ep idermis — Derm is—Persp iration—IIa ir—Na ils. 

The Skin is in two layers. The top, epidermis 
(cuticle); the under, the dermis (cutis vera). The 


73 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


function of the epidermis is to protect the dermis; it has 
neither nerves nor blood-vessels. A blister is an injury 
to the epidermis. The dermis has both nerves and 
blood-vessels, and through its pores the system throws 
off impurities. Perspiration (sweat) is the moisture the 
system is continually throwing off through the skin. 
Hair and nails are protections growing from the skin; 
like the epidermis, they are bloodless and nerveless. 
The sebaceous glands feed the hair. 

THE EAR. 

External — Middle — Internal. 

The External Ear consists of the visible cartilage 
construction which catches the sound, and the tube 
(external auditory canal) inserted in the head. 

Middle Ear (drum.)—This is a cavity containing 
three small bones. Its either wall is a membrane parti¬ 
tion, called the drum head, dividing it from the external 
and inner ear. The Eustachian Tube connects it to the 
back part of the throat. 

Inner Ear. —This is situated deep in the skull and 
contains the nerves of hearing. 

Hearing. —The waves of sound enter the external 
auditory canal, strike the drum head and cause a vibra¬ 
tion. Across the drum cavity stretch three small bones 
(hammer, anvil, stirrup) ; the last of these, the stirrup, 
sets the little drum head to vibrate, which in turn 
causes the water of the internal ear to wave; these waves 
strike the nerves, and the sound is transmitted to the 
brain; the brain interprets the sound. Ear-ache gener¬ 
ally results from an inflammation of the drum head. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 79 

THE EYE. 

Orbit — Eyeball — Cornea — Retina — Iris — Lids — Tears. 

The Orbit is the cavity containing the eyeball. It 
is pyramidal in shape, with the optic-nerve opening at 
the back and the lachrymal canal opening from inner 
side to the nose; a lining of fat cushions the eyeball. 

The Eyeball is nearly round and about an inch in 
diameter, and is attached to the optic nerve. 

The Cornea is the transparent circle in the tough 
outer (sclerotic) coat of the eye. 

Lens. —This is a partition dividing the cavity into 
chambers. The front chamber is filled with a watery 
fluid (aqueous humor) ; the rear chamber is filled with 
jelty-like fluid (vitreous humor). 

The Retina is the back lining formed by the web¬ 
like division of the optic nerve. 

The Iris (pupil) is the beautiful setting in the 
muscle-curtain of the eye which is seen through the 
cornea. The action of the Iris is reflex, contracting or 
expanding as the degrees of light require. 

Lids, Lashes, Tears. —Lids are of a cartilage con¬ 
struction; they protect the eye. Lashes grow from the 
lids; they are dust protectors. Small (meibomian) 
glands along the lids give the nutriment to the lashes. 
In roof of orbit, front, are small (lachrymal) glands; in 
winking these give out a fluid which oils the eyeball and 
lashes. An overflow of this fluid caused by sudden joy 
or sadness is tears. 

Sight. —When looking at an object, a picture of it 
is formed on the retina; this picture is transmitted on 
the optic nerve to the brain ; the brain develops the pic¬ 
ture; this is “seeing.” 


80 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


GEOLOGY—MINERALOGY—CHEMISTRY— 

ZOOLOGY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Geology — Paleontology — Anthropology. 

Geology is the science which treats of the structure 
and development of the earth; its animals, plants and 
organic matter. 

ORIGIN. 

God created the earth from a condition of chaos. 
Its original state, gaseous, was developed into a solid 
condition by the process of condensation and the radia¬ 
tion of heat into space. 

SEVEN GEOLOGICAL AGES. 

Archaean. —This was the earliest period before the 
appearance of life. 

Silurian. —The Silurian age is that of animal de¬ 
velopment; before they had developed a backbone. 

Devonian.— This is the age of the fishes’ highest 
development. 

Carboniferous. —The carboniferous age saw the 
development of vegetation into coal beds. 

Reptilian. —The age in which reptiles reached their 
greatest size. 

Mammalian. —In this age, the mammal, the highest 
type of vertebrated animals, reached its greatest 
development. 

Quaternary. —This was the last geological age, the 
age of mankind. 

EARTH’S STRUCTURE. 

Rock — Sand — Clay — Gravel — Soil. 

Rock is a layer of the earth’s crust of consolidated 
material. Sand is a composition of very small pebbles. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


81 


Clay is the product of worn-away or decayed rock; a 
plastic earth. Gravel is fine fragments of stone; fine 
pebbles. Soil is a mixture of sand, clay and vegetable 
mold. 

ROCK. 

Sedimentary — Volcanic — Metamorphic. 

Rock. —Rock is a mineral but may have been of 
mineral and organic origin. All that rock formed from 
the deposits of air, water, and from the decayed animal 
and vegetable matter belongs to the class of sedimentary 
rock. Volcanic rock is the product of volcanic erup¬ 
tions of the earth’s heated interior. The change in the 
texture of certain materials of the earth’s crust produces 
our metamorphic rock. 

earth’s crust. 

Crust. —The earth’s crust is the cool outer layer of 
the earth; there is no uniform thickness. 

Interior.— Of the interior of the earth there are 
three stoutly supported theories: (1) that the earth is 
a complete solid; (2) that it has a molten interior 
bounded by a solid crust; (3) that it is substantially a 
solid mass, with a liquid substratum under the crust. 
It is believed that the interior of the earth is similar to 
a honey-comb; becoming more dense as it nears the 
surface. 

PALEONTOLOGY. 

Paleontology. —This is the science which treats of 
the ancient life of the earth through its organic relics or 
fossils. A fossil is any evidence of past life, such as 
bones, implements or other signs, either ancient or 
modern; the term is generally applicable to pre-historic 
times. The study of fossils has given material aid to 


science, 


82 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Archaeology — Ethnology . 

Anthropology. —This is the scientific study of man. 
This science is called Archaeology, when it deals with 
man’s antiquity; Ethnology , when searching into his 
relation and origin. 

MAN. 

Man is the highest order in the animal creation. 
Almighty God has created him for his own honor and 
glory; has endowed him with an immortal soul and 
destined him for eternal life. From the study of fossil¬ 
ized relics man’s existence is placed at many thousand 
years; by some at six thousand, by others as much as 
two hundred thousand. A taste of science tends to 
scepticism ; a full draught , to an unshaken belief in 
Christianity . 

MINERALOGY. 

Mineralogy is the science of minerals and their 
development. A mineral is an inorganic chemical com¬ 
position, in the original. An ore is a compound of 
metal in the original, and becomes a metal when all 
foreign matter is extracted. A crystal is a mineral 
substance solidified. 

METALS. 

Salt. (Chloride of Sodium).—This mineral which 
is found native in the earth—is produced by evapo¬ 
ration and crystallization, from water containing saline 
particles; it consists of one atom of chlorine and one of 
sodium. 

Steel. —Steel is a combination of iron with a small 
portion of carbon. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


83 


Cast Steel. —This is a mixture of wrought iron 
with powdered charcoal or other substances containing 
carbon. 

Bessemer Steel.—T his metal is obtained by blow¬ 
ing air into liquid cast iron to extract the carbon. 

Cast Iron. —The iron, being liquified, is run 
through molds. 

Wrought Iron.—T his is the purest malleable iron, 
having all the carbon removed from it. 

GEMS. 

Amethyst.—A bluish violet species of quartz; a 
.product of Brazil, Siberia, India and Ceylon. Symb. 
Sincerity—a charm. 

Agate.— A beautiful tinted species of quartz found 
on the lakes, along the Mississippi and in South Amer¬ 
ica. Symb. Health and long life. 

Bloodstone. —A variety of jasper with green and 
red tints; is found in New England, Asia and France. 
Symb. Gallantry. 

Diamond.— The diamond in its purity is said to be 
colorless; it is found, however, in nearly all the colors; 
it is the hardest known substance and is very valuable. 
The diamond is found in India, Australia, Africa and 
South America. Symb. Innocence. 

Emerald.— The emerald is a rare stone of velvety 
green color. It is found in Bogota, Siberia, and upper 
Egypt. Symb. Success in Love. 

Opal. —This gem is of a bluish or yellowish white 
from which the refracted light produces a play of beau¬ 
tiful colors. The best species are found in Hungary. 
S\mb. 1lope. 

Pearl. —The pearl is a product of certain shell-fish. 
The finest are found in the Arabian Gulf. Symb. Purity. 


84 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 



Ruby. —This magnificent gem is of a red color and 
leads the diamond in value ; a stone of equal weight is of 
five times the value of the diamond. The ruby is the 
product of East India. 

Sapphire.— The sapphire is a stone found in var¬ 
ious colors; the blue sapphire is the finest. They are 
found in Ceylon, Burmah and Siam. 

Turquoise. —This is a sky-blue stone of beauty and 
value, found in India; there have been some found in 
the United States also. Symb. Prosperity in Love. 

METALS. 

Gold. —Gold is the most precious of metals, is 
found in Australia, Africa and in the United States. 

Silver. —Silver is found in Spain, Mexico, United 
States and India. 

Zinc. —This is a hard bluish-white metal; it is found 
in Wales, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Missouri. 

Copper. —This ancient metal is found in great quan¬ 
tities on Lake Superior. 

Brass. —Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. 

Bronze. —Bronze is an alloy of copper and other 
metals. 

German Silver. —This metal is fifty parts copper, 
thirty parts zinc and twenty parts nickel. 

Nickel. —This is a grayish-white metal, a product 
of Connecticut and Pennsylvania. 

Petroleum. —This is a composition formed from 
decayed vegetable and animal matter. The state of 
Pennsylvania leads in its production. 

Coal. —Coal is a formation of decomposed vegeta¬ 
ble matter; it is found in most parts of the world, it is 
an inflammable solid used for fuel. Anthracite is the 
hard glazed coal; Bituminous is the soft coal. 


Cummings' JEncyclopcedia. 


85 


Bismuth. —This mineral is found in Cornwall, Ger¬ 
many, France and Sweden; it is used as an alloy in the 
formation of type and in medicine. 


CHEMISTRY 


Chemistry is the science that treats of sub¬ 
stances, their composition and changes; this science is 
of Egyptian origin, and is one fruit of the dream of the 
Alchemist who sought to transmute the baser metals into 
gold and to discover an elixir to prolonglife. 

1. Heat is necessary to chemical change; where fire 
is present, chemical change is going on. 

2. Oxygen is the life of the animal ; by the lungs it 
enters the body and burns up the carbon ; this carbonic- 
acid gas is cast ofi‘ in the breath. 

3. Carbonic-acid Gas is the life of the plant, act¬ 
ing in the plant as the oxygen acts in the body; freeing 
the oxygen and giving it forth for the use of the ani¬ 
mal. 

4. Plants and Animals. —Plants manufacture the 
oxygen from the sun’s light and heat; the animal inhal¬ 
ing the oxygen and exhaling the carbonic-acid gas, the 
plant inhaling the carbonic-acid gas and exhaling the 
oxygen. The life of the one may be said to depend on 
that of the other. 

5. Water may be separated into its oxygen and hy¬ 
drogen gases by electricity. Water should contain one 
part oxygen to two parts hydrogen. 

s G. Pain, as it comes from the clouds, is pure and 
soft, but in passing over and through the earth, absorbs 
metallic elements and becomes hard. 

7. Rust is produced by the oxygen of the air com¬ 
ing in contact with the moist surface of the metal. 


86 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


87 


8. Metallic Elements. —The metallic elements are 
iron , aluminum, calcium , magnesium, sodium , potassium, 
copper, zinc, tin, lead, mercury, silver and 

9. Non-Metallic Elements. —The non-metallic ele¬ 
ments are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur, 
phosphorus and silicon. 

10. Definitions. —Oxygen is a tasteless, invisible 
element of the air; oxides may be formed by its com¬ 
bination with other substances. Nitrogen, like oxygen, 
is a tasteless, invisible gas; it is found in such com¬ 
pounds as nitric acid, nitre or saltpeter, ammonia, and in 
the flesh of animals. Hydrogen combined with oxygen 
composes the water; water is colorless, and, when 
standing alone, is invisible. Carbon is a solid, as coal, 
coke and charcoal; it is found in all vegetables and 
animals. Chlorine is a yellowish, poisonous gas 
extracted from common salt. Sulphur is a yellowish 
solid produced from volcanic blending of metallic ores. 
Phosphorus is a solid, glistening metalloid substance, 
waxy and yellowdsh. It is found in bones and some 
metals. Silicon, when combined with oxygen, forms 
what is known as quartz, sandstone, flint, etc.; com¬ 
pounded with metals, it forms silicates; it is not of 
itself a free agent. 

ZOOLOGY. 

Zoology is the science which treats of the animal 
kingdom. 

DIVISIONS. 

The French naturalist, Cuvier, divides the animal 
kingdom into four divisions, viz: Vertebrata, back¬ 
boned animals; Articulata, jointed animals; Mollusca, 
pulpy animals; liadiata , rayed animals. Of these the 
highest order is the vertebrata; the Mammalia is the 


88 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


highest order of the vertebrata; the Bimana is the 
highest order of the mammalia. God has elevated the 
Bimana, Man , above the other order of animals by 
endowing him with an intellect by which he is enabled 
to distinguish between right and wrong. God has given 
man an immortal soul w T hich destines him for another 
life beyond the grave. 

TRAITS. 

1. The Felidae , cat family, have five toes on their 
fore feet and four on their hind feet. Their tongue is 
rough so that they may the more easily lapp liquids. 
’Tis said their “whiskers ” contain nerves of smell. 

Hyena. —The hyena is perhaps the most greedy of 
the whole range of animals. This beast has a fondness 
for dead flesh as a food, and has been known to rob the 
grave of its dead. 

Lion. —The lion is the strongest of the cat family ; 
it may live to a great age. The lion of the London 
Tower, Pompey , lived to the age of seventy years. 

Instinct. —The instinct of a beast or bird is an 
innate impulse to do something peculiar to its kind, as 
building nests, dens and such. This instinct never 
improves; the bird’s first nest is as skillfully arranged 
as the last. 

The Elephant. —The elephant (Proboscidse) are 
divided into two great families; the Elephas Indicus f 
those of India, and the Elephas Africanus , African ele¬ 
phants. The average age of an elephant in his native 
wfilds is four hundred years; this is not true of the 
elephant in captivity. 

The Whale. —The Spermacita of commerce is 
obtained from a large cavity in the head of the sperm 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


89 


whale; Ambergris, an article used in the manufacture of 
perfumery, is taken from the intestine of the sperm 
whale. 

Tadpoles. —The “coming” of this creature is a 
world-wonder; the female frog’s back is pitted with 
small cells; in these cells the male places the eggs the 
female has deposited; she then seeks the water; these 
cells deapen and close, and in due time the “ tadpole ” 
is hatched. The tadpole stage is passed on the mother’s 
back, and when the tail disappears and the legs appear 
they are “ raised,” and she returns to the land. 

Reptiles. —There are about two hundred thousand 
species of reptiles. The boa constrictor and the ana¬ 
conda being the largest, the former being from thirty to 
thirty-five feet in length. 

Insects. —The great feature of the insect is their 
projecting eyeball which contains thousands of lenses; 
those of the butterfly contain thirty-four thousand 
lenses. 

Bumble-Bee. —The large female bumble-bee alone 
survives the winter; it lives about ten years. 


READING. 


ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is the art of delivering written or extem¬ 
poraneous composition with propriety, ease and force. 

Articulation is the correct and distinct utterance 
of the sound of letters and of words. 

ACCENT AND EMPHASIS. 

Accent.— Accent is that force or stress of voice 
used to emphasize a syllable of a word. The degrees of 
accent are the measurements of the force used. 

Emphasis. —Emphasis is that force or stress of voice 
used on a word or words, to give them prominence of 
expression. There are degrees of emphasis, as; To 
arms! to arms ! TO ARMS ! 


90 


91 


Cum m mgs' En cy clop os dia. 

PHONIC MARKINGS. 

I.—Vowel Markings. 


! ^ 
co 

i § 

o 

Co 

breue. 

macron. 

circum¬ 

flex. 

A 

dots. 

• • 

dot. 

• 

wave. 

a 

bag 

play 

hair 

far, fall 

ask, what 


e 

beg 

me, they 

there 



her 

i 

big 

kite 


machine 


dirt 

o 

bog 

old 

for 

do 

done, wplf 


u 

bug 

use 

cfirl 

rude 

push 


y 

hymn 

my 





00 

foot 

school 






II.—Equivalent Vowel Markings. 


e, a 

prey, pray 

e, i 

pert, dirt 

y, 1 

hymn, him 

a, 6 

what, hot 

y » i 

my, mine 

6, u 

none, nun 

U, 0, 00 

pull, vvplf, wool 

6, a 

for, fall 

u, o, oo 

a, e 

true, to, tc5o 
air, heir 

•• — 
i, e 

pique, peak 


III.—Consonant Markings. 


9 and $h 

cellar, machine 

like s and sh 

c and ch 

curl, school 

“ k 

g 

gem 

“ j 

g 

get 

hard 

§ 

ha§ 

like z 

5 

e$act 

“ gz 

n 

think 

“ ng 

th 

there 

flat 


( 4 ) under c is the cedilla; (*) under s and x is the suspended bar. 





























92 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 


(SWINTON.) 




VOCALS. 


- 


Long Vowels. 


Short Vowels. 

a 

as in 

fate 

e 

as in 

met 

a 

< < 

air 

a 

< i 

fat 

a 

a 

far 

a 

< ( 

fast 

a 

11 

fall 

6 

(i 

hot 

e 

4 4 

me 

i. (y)“ 

tin, hymn 

e 

i t 

her 



i,(y)“ 

Ice, my 
old 




O 

(i 




00 

u 

moon 

do 

^ i 

book 

u 

it 

use 




a 

<< 

cQrl 

u 

i i 

us 



REGULAR DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 

oi, 

oy as 

in oil, boy 

ou, 

ow as 

in our, now 



SUBVOCALS. 


b 

as in 

bad 

th 

as in 

than 

m 

u 

me 

z 

i c 

zinc 

w 

l ( 

wine 

1 

11 

low 

V 

(< 

vine 

n 

(( 

no 

d' 

< ( 

den 

g 

4 4 

get 

z 

(i 

azure 

j 

< t 

joke 

r 

( i 

rat 

n g 

t ( 

sing 



ASPIRATES. 


P 

as in 

Pig 

sh 

as in 

shall 

h 

11 

hat 

th 

< < 

thin 

wh 

(i 

when 

s 

< ( 

seal 

f 

(i 

fine 

k 

(( 

key 

t 

4 4 

ten 

ch 

<< 

chest 



y as in year • 








Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


93 


INFLECTION. 

Inflection is a slide or turn of the voice used in 
speaking or reading. 

The Rising Inflection is an upward turn or slide of 
the voice. 

The Falling Inflection is the downward turn or 
slide of the voice. 

Circumflection is a union of the rising and falling 
inflection in one. A rising circumflection begins with 
the falling inflection and ends with the rising. The 
falling circumflection begins with the rising inflection 
and ends with the falling. 

A Monotone is a sameness of sound; an absence of 
inflection. The monotone belongs to scriptural reading. 

modulation. 

Pitch—Quanti ty—Quali ty. 

Modulations of the voice are its variations pro¬ 
duced by the emotions inspired by the subject. The 
modulations of the voice are expressed in pitch , quantity 
and quality. 

pitch. 

Low Pitch—Middle Pitch—High Pitch. 

Low Pitch is employed in expressing awe and 
reverence; it usually falls below the natural speaking key. 

Middle Pitch is used in ordinary conversation ; it is 
the natural key. 

High Pitch is employed in expressing tones higher 
than the natural and is expressive of joyous and exalted 
emotions. 


94 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


QUANTITY. 

Soft Tone—Middle Tone—Loud Tone. 

Quantity has reference to the fullness and length of 
sound; it is expressed in soft or subdued tones , middle 
tones and high tones. 

Soft Tones are expressive of fear, secrecy and 
emotion; they range from a whisper to a complete voice 
sound. 

Middle Tones are the tones of descriptive conversa¬ 
tion. 

Loud Tones are expressions of the voice in full 
stress; these tones usually express passion or anger. 

QUALITY. 

Pure — Orotund — Aspirated — Guttural. 

Quality means the kind of sound uttered; it maybe 
pure , orotund , aspirated or guttural. 

Pure Tones are clear, smooth sounds, taking the 
middle pitch; they are employed in expressing tranquil¬ 
lity and love. 

The Orotund is a full, deep, pure tone, properly 
expressive of pathetic emotions. 

The Aspirated is a broken, forced sound, taking 
the high pitch, and expresses fear , anger , terror and 
remorse. 

The Guttural is an aspirated tone used to express 
contempt or loathinrg. 


SELECTION FOR EXERCISE. 


OUR ARMY OF THE DEAD. 

WILL CARLETON. 

1— By the edge of the Atlantic, where the waves of Freedom 

roar, 

And the breezes of the ocean chant a requiem to the shore, 
On the Nation’s eastern hilltops, where its corner-stone 
is laid, 

On the mountains of New England, where our fathers 
toiled and prayed, 

’Mid old Keystone’s rugged riches, which the miner’s 
hand await, 

’Mid the never-ceasing commerce of the busy Empire 
State, 

With the country’s love and honor on each brave, devoted 
head, 

Is a band of noble heroes—is our Army of the Dead. 

2— On the lake-encircled homestead of the thriving Wolver¬ 

ine, 

On the beauteous Western prairies, with their carpeting 
of green, 

By the sweeping Mississippi, long our country’s pride 
and boast, 

On the rugged Rocky Mountains, and the weird Pacific 
coast, 

In the listless, sunny Southland, with its blossoms and 
its vines, 

On the bracing Northern hilltops, and amid their mur¬ 
muring pines, 

Over all our happy country—over all our Nation spread, 
Is a band of noble heroes—is our Army of the Dead. 

3— Not with musket, and with sabre, and with glad heart 

beating fast; 

Not with cannon that had thundered till the bloody war 
was past; 

Not with voices that are shouting with the vim of 
victory’s note; 

Not with armor gayly glistening, and with flags that 
proudly float; 

95 


90 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


Not with air of martial vigor, nor with steady, soldier 
tramp, 

Come they grandly marching to us—for the boys are all 
in camp. 

'With forgetfulness upon it—each within his earthly bed, 

Waiting for his marching orders—is our Army of the 
Dead. 

4—Fast asleep the boys are lying, in their low and narrow 
tents, 

And no battle-cry can wake them, and no orders call 
them hence, 

And the yearnings of the mother, and the anguish of the 
wife, 

Cannot with their magic presence call the soldier back 
to life; 

And the brother’s manly sorrow, and the father’s mourn¬ 
ful pride, 

Cannot give back to his country him who for his country 
died. 

They who for the trembling Nation in its hour of trial 
bled, 

Lie, in these its years of triumph, with our Army of the 
Dead. 

6—When the years of Earth are over, and the cares of Earth 
are done, 

When the reign of Time is ended, and Eternity begun, 

When the thunders of Omniscience on our wakened 
senses roll, 

And the sky above shall wither, and be gathered like a 
scroll; 

When, among the lofty mountains, and across the mighty 
sea; 

The sublime celestial bugler shall ring out the reveille, 

Then shall march with brightest laurels, and with proud, 
victorious tread, 

To their station up in Heaven, our Grand Army of the 
Dead 1 

RIP VAN WINKLE’S SLEEP. 

WASHINGTON IRVING. 

1—In a long ramble, on a fine autumnal day, Rip 
had unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts 
of the Kaatskili Mountains. He was after his favorite 
sport of squirrel-shooting, and the still solitudes had 
echoed and re echoed with the report of his gun. Pant¬ 
ing and fatigued, he threw himself, late in the afternoon, 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


97 


on a green knoll covered with mountain herbage, that 
crowned the brow of the precipice. From an opening 
between the trees he could overlook all the lower country, 
for many a mile, of rich woodland. He saw at a dis¬ 
tance the lordly Hudson, far, far below T him, moving in 
its silent but majestic course, with the reflection of a 
purple cloud, or the sail of a lagging boat here and there 
sleeping on its glassy bosom, and at last losing itself in 
the blue highlands. 

2. On the other side he looked down into a deep 
mountain glen, wild, lonely, and shagged, the bottom 
filled with fragments from the impending cliffs, and 
scarcely lighted by the reflected rays of the setting sun. 
For some time Rip lay musing on this scene. Evening 
was gradually advancing; the mountains began to throw 
their long blue shadows over the valleys. He saw that 
it would be dark long before he could reach the village, 
and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encoun¬ 
tering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. 

3. As he was about to descend, he heard a voice 
from a distance, hallooing “Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van 
Winkle!” He looked around, but could see nothing 
but a crow winging its solitary flight across the moun¬ 
tains. He thought his fancy must have deceived him 
and turned again to descend, when he heard the same 
cry ring through the still evening air, “Rip Van Win¬ 
kle! Rip Van Winkle!” At the same time Wolf bristled 
up his back, and, giving a loud growl, skulked to his 
master’s side, looking fearfully down the glen. 

4. Rip now felt a vague apprehension stealing over 
him ; he looked anxiously in the same direction, and 
perceived a strange figure slowly toiling up the rocks, 
and bending under the weight of something he carried 
on his back. He was surprised to see any human being 


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in this lonely and unfrequented place; but, supposing 
it to be some one of the neighborhood in need of his 
assistance, he hastened down to yield it. 

5. On nearer approach, he was still more surprised 
at the singularity of the stranger’s appearance. He was 
a short, square built old fellow, with thick, bushy hair, 
and grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch 
fashion—a cloth jerkin strapped round the waist, sev¬ 
eral pairs of breeches, the outer one of ample volume, 
decorated with rows of buttons down the sides, and 
bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout 
keg, that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip 
to approach and assist him with the load. 

6. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new 
acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual alacrity; and, 
mutually relieving each other,, they clambered up a nar¬ 
row gully, apparently the dry bed of a mountain tor¬ 
rent. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard 
long, rolling peals, like distant thunder, that seemed to 
issue out of a deep ravine, or rather cleft between lofty 
rocks, toward which their rugged path conducted. He 
paused for an instant; but, supposing it to be the mut¬ 
tering of one of those transient thunder-showers which 
often take place in mountain heights, he proceeded. 

7. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hol¬ 
low like a small amphitheater, surrounded by perpen¬ 
dicular precipices, over the brinks of which impending 
trees shot their branches, so that you only caught 
glimpses of the azure sky and the bright evening cloud. 
During the whole time Rip and his companion had 
labored on in silence; for though the former marveled 
greatly what could be the object of carrying a keg of 
liquor up this wild mountain, yet there was something 


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99 


strange and incomprehensible about the unknown, that 
inspired awe and checked familiarity. 

8. On entering the amphitheatre, new objects of 
wonder presented themselves. On a level spot in the 
center was a company of od* -looking personages playing 
at nine pins. They w’ere dressed in quaint, outlandish 
fashion: some wwe short doublets; others jerkins, with 
long knives in their belts; and most of them had enor¬ 
mous breeches, of similar style with those of the guide. 
Their visages, too, were peculiar: one had a large head, 
broad face, and small piggish eyes; the face of another 
seemed to consist entirely of nose, and was surmounted 
by a white sugar-loaf hat, set off with a little red cock’s 
tail. 

9. They all had beards, of various shapes and col¬ 
ors. There w T as one who seemed to be the commander. 
He was a stout old gentleman, with a weather-beaten 
countenance; he wore a laced doublet, broad belt and 
hanger, high-crowned hat and feather, red stockings, 
and high-heeled shoes with roses in them. The whole 
group reminded Rip of the figures in an old Flemish 
painting in the parlor of Dominie Van Schaick, the vil¬ 
lage parson, and which had been brought over from 
Holland at the time of the settlement. 

10. What seemed particula* ly odd to Rip was, 
that though these folks were evidently amusing them¬ 
selves, yet they maintained the graves faces, ti e most 
mysterious silence, and were, withal, the most melan¬ 
choly party of p’ea«ure he had ever witnessed. Nothing 
interrupted the stillness of the scene but the noise of the 
balls, which, whenever they were rolled, echoed along 
the mountains like rumbling peals of thunder. 

11. As Rip and his companion approached them, 
they suddenly desisted from their play, and stared at 


100 


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him with fixed, statue-like gaze, and such strange, un¬ 
couth, lack-luster countenances, that his heart turned 
within him, and his kn<es smote tog ther. His com¬ 
panion now emptied the contents of the keg into large 
flagons, and made signs to him to wait upon the com¬ 
pany. He obeyed with fear and trembling. They 
quaffed the liquor in profound silence, and then return¬ 
ed to their game. 

12. By degrees Rip’s awe and apprehension subsid¬ 
ed. He even vent ured, when no eye was fixed upon 
him, to taste the b verage, which he found had much 
the flavor of excellent Hollands. He was naturally a 
thirsty soul, and was soon tempted to repeat the draught. 
One taste provoked another; and he reiterated his visit 
to the flagon so often, that at length his senses were 
overpowered, his eyes swam in his head, his head grad¬ 
ually declined, and he fell into a deep sleep. 

13. On waking, he found himself on the green knoll 
whence he had first seen the old man of the glen. He 
rubbed his eyes—it was a bright sunny morning. The 
birds were hopping and twittering among the bushes, 
and the eagle was wheeling aloft, and breasting the 
pure mountain breeze. “Surely,” thought Rip, “1 have 
not slept here all night.” He recalled the occurrences 
before he fell asleep: the strange man with the keg of 
liquor—the mountain ravine—the wild retreat among 
the rocks—the woe-begone party at nine pins—the flag¬ 
on. “Oh! that flagon—that wicked flagon !” thought 
Rip, “what excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?” 

14. He looked around for his gun; but in place of 
the clean, well-oiled fowling-piece, he found an old fire¬ 
lock lying beside him, the barrelincrusted with rust, the 
lock fallen off, and the stock worm-eaten. He now 
suspected that the grave roisterers of the mountain had 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopedia. 


101 


put a trick upon him, and, having dosed him with 
liquor, had robbed him of his gun. Wolf, too, had dis¬ 
appeared; but he might have strayed after a squirrel or 
partridge. He whistled after him and shouted his name, 
but all in vain; the echoes repeated his whistle and 
shout, but no dog was to be seen. 

15. He determined to revisit the scene of the last 
evening’s gambol, and, if he met with any of the party, 
to demand the dog and gun. As he rose to walk, he 
found himself stiff in the joints, and wanting in his 
usual activity. “These mountain beds do not agree 
with me,” thought Rip; “and if this frolic should lay 
me up with a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed 
time with Dame Van Winkle.” With some difficulty 
he got down into the glen; he found the gully up which 
he and his companion had ascended the preceding eve¬ 
ning; but, to his astonishment, a mountain stream vras 
now foaming down it, leaping from rock to rock, and 
filling the glen with babbling murmurs. He, however, 
made shift to scramble up its sides, working his toil¬ 
some way through the thickets of birch, sassafras, and 
witch-hazel, and sometimes tripped up and entangled 
by the wild grape-vines that twisted their coils and 
tendrils from tree to tree, and spread a kind of network 
in his path. 

16. At length he reached to where the ravine had 
opened through the cliff to the amphitheatre; but no 
traces to such an opening remained. The rocks present¬ 
ed a high, impenetrable wall, over which the torrent 
came tumbling in a sheet of feathery foam, and fell 
into a broad, deep basin, black from the shadows of the 
surrounding forest. Here, then, poor Rip was brought 
to a stand. He again called and whistled after his dog; 
he was only answered by the cawing of a flock of idle 


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crows sporting high in air about a high tree that over¬ 
hung a sunny precipice; and who, s cure in their eleva¬ 
tion, seemed to look down and scoff at the poor man’s 
perplexities. What was to he done? The morning was 
passing away, and Rip felt fami-hed for want of his 
breakfast. He grieved to give up his dog and gun; he 
dreaded to meet his wife ; but it would not do to starve 
among the mountains. He shook his head, shouldered 
the rusty firelock, and, with a heart full of troubles and 
anxiety, turned his steps homeward. 

17. As he approached the village he met a number 
of people, but none whom he knew; which somewhat 
surprised him, for he had thought himself acquainted 
with everyone in the country round. Their dress, too, 
was of a different fashion from that to which he was ac¬ 
customed. They all stared at him with equal marks of 
surprise, and, whenever they cast their eyes upon him, 
invariably stroked their chins. The constant occurrence 
of this gesture induced Rip involuntarily to do the 
same, when, to his astonishment, he found his beard had 
grown a foot long! 

18. He had now entered the skirts of the village. A 
troop of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after 
him, and pointing at the gray beard. The dogs, too, 
not one of which he recognized for an old acquaintance, 
barked at him as he passed. The very village was al¬ 
tered ; it was larger and more populous. There were 
rows of houses which he had never seen before, and those 
which had be«n his familiar haunts had disappeared. 
Strange names were over the doors, strange faces at the 
windows—everything was strange. His mind now mis¬ 
gave him; he began to doubt whether both he and the 
world around him were not bewitched. Surely this was 
his native village, which he had left but the day before. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 108 

There stood the Kaatskill Mountains; there ran the sil¬ 
ver Hudson at a distance; there was every hill 
and dale precisely as it had always been. Rip was 
sorely perplexed. “That flagon last night,” thought 
he, “has addled my poor head §adly!” 

19. It was with some difficulty that he found the 
way, to his own house, which he approached with silent 
awe, expecting every moment to hear the shrill voice of 
Dame Van Winkle. He found the house gone to decay, 
the roof fallen in, the windows shattered, and the doors 
off the hinges. A half-starved dog that looked like a 
wolf was skulking about. Rip called him byname, but 
the cur snarled, showed his teeth, and passed on. This 
was an unkind cut indeed. “My very dog,” sighed 
Rip, “has forgotten me! ” 

20. He entered the house, which, to tell the truth, 
Dame Van Winkle had always kept in neat order. It 
was empty, forlorn and apparently abandoned. The 
desolateness overcame all his connubial fears. He called 
loudly for his wife dfnd children ; the lonely chambers 
rang for a moment with his voice, and then all again 
was silence. 

21. He now hurried forth, and hastened to his old 
resort, the village inn ; but it, too, was gone. A large, 
rickety wooden building stood in its place, with great 
gaping windows, some of them broken and mended with 
old hats and petticoats; and over the door was painted, 
“The Union Hotel, by Jonathan Doolittle.” Instead 
of the great tree that used to shelter the quiet little 
Dutch inn of yore, there was now reared a tall, naked 
pole, with something on top that looked like a red 
night-cap, and from it was fluttering a flag, on which 
was a singular assemblage of stars and stripes. All this 
was strange and incomprehensible. He recognized on 


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the sign, however, the ruddy face of King George, under 
which he had smoked many a peaceful pipe; hut even 
this was singularly metamorphosed. The red coat was 
changed for one of blue and buff, a sword was held in 
the hand instead of a scepter, the head was decorated 
with a cocked hat, and underneath was painted, in large 
characters, “General Washington.” 

22. The appearance of Rip, with his long, grizzled 
beard, his rusty fowling-piece, his uncouth dress, and 
an army of women and children at his heels, soon at¬ 
tracted the attention of the tavern politicians. They 
crowded around him, eying him from head to foot with 
great curiosity. The orator bustled up to him, and, 
drawing him partly aside, inquired “on which side he 
voted.” Rip stared in vacant stupidity. 

23. Another short but busy little fellow pulled him 
by the arm, and, rising on tiptoe, inquired in his ear 
“whether he was Federal or Democrat.” Rip was 
equally at a loss to comprehend the question; when a 
knowing, self-important old gentleman, in a sharp 
cocked hat, made his way through the crowd, putting 
them to the right and left with his elbows as he passed, 
and, planting himself before Van Winkle, with one arm 
akimbo, and the other resting on his cane, his keen eyes 
and sharp hat penetrating, as it were, into his very 
soul, demanded in an austere tone, “what brought him 
to the election with a gun on his shoulder and a mob at 
his heels, and whether he meant to breed a riot in the 
village.” “Alas! gentlemen,” cried Rip, somewhat 
dismayed, “I am a poor, quiet man, a native of the 
place, and a loyal subject of the King—God bless him!” 

24. Here a general shout burst from the bystanders: 
“A Tory! a Tory! a refugee! Hustle him! away with 
him!” It was with great difficulty that the self-im- 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopedia. 


106 


portant man in the cocked hat restored order; and, 
haying assumed a ten-fold austerity of brow, demanded 
again of the unknown culprit what he came there for 
and whom he was seeking? The poor man humbly 
assured him that he meant no harm, but merely came 
there in search of some of his neighbors, who used to 
keep about the tavern. 

25. “Well, who are they? Name them.” Kip be¬ 
thought himself a moment, and inquired, “Where is 
Nicholas Vedder?” 

There was silence for a little while, when an old 
man replied in a thin, piping voice: “Nicholas Vedder! 
Why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years! There 
was a wooden tombstone in the churchyard that used to 
tell all about him, but that’s rotten and gone, too.” 

“Where’s Brom Dutcher?” “Oh! he went off to the 
army in the beginning of the war. Some say he was 
killed at Stony Point; others say he was drowned in a 
squall at the foot of Anthony’s Nose. I don’t know. 
He never came back again.” 

“Where’s Van Bummel, the schoolmaster?” “He 
went off to the wars, too—was a great military general, 
and is now in Congress.” 

26. Rip’s heart died away at hearing of these sad 
changes in his home and friends, and finding himself 
thus alone in the world. Every answer puzzled him, 
too, by treating of such enormous lapses of time, and of 
matters which he could not understand—War, Congress, 
Stony Point. He had no courage to ask after any more 
friends, but cried out in despair, “Does anybody here 
know Rip Van Winkle?” 

“Oh, Rip Van Winkle!” exclaimed two or three. 
“Oh, to be sure! that’s Rip Van Winkle yonder, leaning 
against the tree.” 


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27. Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of 
himself as he went up the mountain—apparently as 
lazy, and certainly as ragged. The poor fellow was 
now completely confounded. He doubted his own iden¬ 
tity, or whether he was himself or another man. In the 
midst of his bewilderment, the man in the cocked hat 
demanded who he wa^, and what was his name. “God 
knows!” exclaimed he, at his wits’ end. “I’m not my¬ 
self—I’m somebody else—that’s me yonder—no, that’s 
somebody else got into my shoes. I was myself last 
night, but I fell asleep on the mountains, and they’ve 
changed my gun, and everything’s changed, and I’m 
changed, and I can’t tell what’s my name or who I am !” 

28. The bystanders began now to look at each 
other, nod, wink significantly, and tap their fingers 
against their foreheads. There was a whisper, also, 
about securing the gun, and keeping the old fellow from 
doing mischief; at the very suggestion of which the 
self-important man in the cocked hat retired with some 
precipitation. At this critical moment a fresh, comely 
woman pressed through the throng and got a peep at 
the gray bearded man. She had a chubby child in her 
arms, which, frightened at his looks, began to cry. 

“Hush, Rip,” she cried; “hush, you little fool! 
the old man won’t hurt you.” The name of the child, 
the air of the mother, the tone of her voice, all awakened 
a train of recollections in his mind. “What is your 
name, my good woman?” he asked. 

“Judith Gardener.” 

“And your father’s name? ” 

29. “Ah, poor man ! Rip Van Winkle was his name, 
but it’s twenty years since he went away from home 
with his gun, and never has been heard of since. His 
dog came home without him; but whether he shot him- 


Cu mmings ’ Encyclopcedia. 


107 


self, or was carried away hy the Indian®, nobody can 
tell. I was then but a little girl.” 

Rip had but one more question to ask, but he put 
it with a faltering voice: “Where is your mother? ’ 

“Oh, she too died but a short time since; she broke 
a blood-vessel in a fit of passion at a New England 
peddler.” 

30. There was a drop of comfort, at least, in this 
intelligence. The honest man could contain himself no 
long* r. He caught his daughter and her child in his arms. 
“I am your father!” cried he—“young Rip Van Winkle 
once, old Rip Van Winkle now! Does nobody know 
poor Rip Van Winkle?” 

All stood amazed, until an old woman, tottering 
from among the crowd, put her hand to her brow, and, 
peering under it in his face for a moment, exclaimed: 
“Sure enough! it is Rip Van Winkle—it is himself! 
Welcome home again, old neighbor! Why, where have 
you been these twenty long years?” 

Rip’s story was soon told, for the whole twenty 
years had been to him as Ohe night. The neighbors 
stared when they heard it; some were seen to wink at 
each other, and put their tongues in their cheeks; and 
the self-important man in the cocked hat, who, when 
the alarm was over, had returned to the field, screwed 
down the corners of his mouth, and shook his head ; upon 
which there was a general shaking of the head through¬ 
out the assemblage. 

GRANT IS NOT DEAD. 

l_“G ran t is not dead!” Upon the field 
I see his armor and his shield; 

And in the saddened South still bleed 
The war writ volume and the deed. 


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2— On many a hill-side stained and brown, 
And hard on Appomattox; town, 

The new-born grass blades raise their head 
And gently say, Grant is not dead. 

3— White peace shall sit upon his right 
And shackled war, confined in night; 

The one supreme, the other fled, 

Declare the hero is not dead! 

4— Each re-united foot of earth 
Within this land attests his worth; 

And every inch of freedom here 
Would gladly be his sacred bier. 

5— While still the country that may claim 
Proud parentage of such a name, 

In mourning fabric, street to street, 

Flings out a nation’s winding sheet— 

6— From field of Wilderness, Shiloh, 

To Donelson the tidings go, 

And each proud foot of earth between, 
That knew his tread, his home hath been, 

7— Warlike as he protests the word 
That thro’ a universe is heard; 

While still our souls our hearts defy; 

“ Grant is not dead—Grant cannot "die!” 


THE SWORD OF ROBERT LEE. 


FATHER RYAN. 

1— Forth from its scabbard, pure and bright 

Flashed the ^word of Lee! 

Far in the front of the deadly fight, 

High o’er the brave in the cause of right, 
Its stainless sheen, like a beacon light 
Led us to Victory. 

2— Out of its scabbard, where, full long, 

It slumbered peacefully, 

Roused from its re*t by the battle song, 
Shielding the feeble, smiting the strong, 
Guarding the right, avenging the wrong, 
Gleamed the sword of Lee. 


* 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


109 


3 Forth from its scabbard, high in air 
Beneath Virginia’s sky— 

And they who saw it gleaming there, 

And knew who bore it, knelt to swear 
That where that sword led they would dare 
To follow—and to die. 

4—Out of its scabbard! Never hand 

Waved sword from stain as free, 

Nor purer sword led braver band, 

Nor braver bled for a brighter land, 

Nor brighter laud had a cause so grand, 

Nor cause a chief like Lee! 

5 - Forth from its scabbard! How we prayed 
That sword might victor be; 

And when our triumph was delayed, 

And many a heart grew sore afraid, 

We still hoped on while gleamed the blade 
Of noble Robert Lee. 

6—Forth from its scabbard all in vain 
Bright flashed the sword of Lee; 

’Tis shrouded now in its sheath again, 

It sleeps the sleep of our noble slain, 
Defeated, yet without a stain, 

Proudly and peacefully. 


EMMET’S VINDICATION. 

(extract from his speech.) 

1. My Lords: What have I to say why sentence of 
death should not be pronounced on me, according to 
law? I have nothing to say that can alter your prede¬ 
termination, nor that it will become me to say with any 
view to the mitigation of that sentence which you are 
here to pron mnce, and must abide by. But I have that 
to say which interests me more than life, and which 
you have labored to destroy. I have much to say 
why my reputation should be rescued from the load of 
false accusations and calumny which has been heaped 
upon it. 

2. Were I only to suffer death, after being ad- 


110 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


judged guilty by your tribunal, I should bow in silence, 
and meet the fate that awaits me without a murmur; 
but the sentence of law which delivers my body to the 
executioner will, through the ministry of that law, la¬ 
bor, in its own vindication, to consign my character to 
obloquy; for there must be guilt somewhere—whether 
in the sentence of the court, or in the catastrophe, pos¬ 
terity must determine. The man dies, but his memory 
lives. That mine may not perish—that it may live in 
the respect of my countrymen—I seize upon this oppor¬ 
tunity to vindicate myself from some of the charges 
alleged against me. 

3. When my spirit shall have been wafted to a 
more friendly port; when my shade shall have joined 
the bands of those martyred heroes who have shed their 
blood, on the scaffold and on the field, in defense of 
their country and virtue; this is my hope—I wish that 
my memory and name may animate those who survive 
me, while I look down with complacency on the de¬ 
struction—of that perfidious government which upholds 
its domination by blasphemy of the Most High, which 
displays its powers over man as over the beasts of the 
forest, which sets man upon his brother, and lifts his 
hand, in the name of God, against the throat of his fel¬ 
low who believes or doubts a little more or less than the 
government standard—a government which is steeled to 
barbarity by the cries of the orphans and the tears of 
the widows which its cruelty has made. 

4. I swear by the throne of heaven, before which 
I must shortly appear—by the blood of the murdered 
patriots who have gone before me—that my conduct 
has been, through all this peril and all my purposes, 
governed only by the convictions which I have uttered, 
and no other view than that of the emancipation of my 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Ill 


country from the superinhuman oppression under 
which she has so long and too patiently travailed; and 
that I confidently and assuredly hope, wild and chimer¬ 
ical as it may appear, that there is still union and 
strength in Ireland to accomplish this noble enterprise. 

5. My country was my idol. To it I sacrificed 
every selfish, every endearing sentiment; and for it I 
now offer up my life! I acted as an Irishman, deter¬ 
mined on delivering my country from the ;yoke of a for¬ 
eign and unrelenting tyranny, and from the more gall¬ 
ing yoke of a domestic faction, its joint partner and 
perpetrator in the patricide, whose reward is the igno¬ 
miny of existing with an exterior of splendor and a con¬ 
sciousness of depravity. It was the wish of my heart 
to extricate my country from this doubly riveted despot¬ 
ism. I wished to place her independence beyond the 
reach of any power on earth. I wished to exalt her to 
that proud station in the world which Providence had 
fitted her to fill. 

6. I have been charged with that importance, in 
the efforts to emancipate my country, as to be consider¬ 
ed the keystone of the combination of Irishmen, or, as 
your lordship expressed it, “the life and blood of the 
conspiracy.” You do me honor over much. You have 
given to the subaltern all the credit of a superior. 
There are men engaged in this “conspiracy” who are 
not only superior to me, but even to your own concep¬ 
tions of yourself, my Lord—men before the splendor of 
whose genius and virtues I should bow with respectful 
deference, and who would think themselves dishonored 
to be called your friends. 

7. Let no man dare, when I am dead, to charge 
me with dishonor; let no man attaint my memory 
by believing that I could have engaged in any cause 


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Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


but that of my country’s liberty and independence, or 
that I could have become the* p'iant minion in the op¬ 
pression or the miseries of my countrymen. I would 
not have submitted to a foreign oppressor, for the same 
reason that I would resist the domestic tyrant; in the 
dignity of freedom I would have fought upon the 
threshold of my country, and her enemies should enter 
only by passing over my lifeless corpse. Am I, who 
lived but for my country, and who have subjected my¬ 
self to the vengeance of the jealous and rathful oppress¬ 
or, and to the bondage of the grave, only to give my 
countrymen their rights and my country her independ¬ 
ence—am I to be loaded with calumny, and not to be 
suffered to resent or repel it? No! God forbid! 

8. If the spirits of the illustrious dead participate 
in the concerns and cares of those who are dear to them 
in this transitory life, 0 ever dear and venerated shade 
of my departed father, look down with scrutiny on the 
conduct of your suffering son, and see if I have even for 
a moment deviated from those principles of morality 
and patriotism which it was your care to instill into my 
youthful mind, and for an adherence to which I am 
now to offer up my life! 

9. My Lords, you are all impatient for the sacri¬ 
fice. The blood which you seek is not congealed by the 
artificial terrors which surround your victim; it circu¬ 
lates warmly and unruffled through the channels which 
God created foT noble purposes, but which you are 
bent to destroy, for purposes so grievous that they cry 
to Heaven! 

10. Be ye patient; I have but a few words more to 
say. I am going to my silent grave; my lamp of life is 
nearly extinguished; my race is run; the grave opens to 
receive me, and I sink into its bosom. I have but one 


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113 


request to ask at my departure from this world—it is 
the charity of its silence. Let no man write my epi¬ 
taph ; for, as no one who knows my motives dare now 
vindicate them, let not prejudice or ignorance asperse 
them. Let them and me repose in obscurity and peace, 
and my tomb remain uninscribed, until other times 
and other men can do justice to my character. When 
my country shall take her place among the nations of 
the earth, then, and not till then, let my epitaph be 
written. I have done. 


THANATOPSIS. 

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 

1— To him who in the love of Nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language: for his gayer hours 

She has a voice of gladness, and a smile 
And eloquence of beauty; and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And healing sympathy, that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware. 

2— When thoughts 

Of the last bitter hour come like a blight 

Over thy spirit, and sad images 

Of the stern agony, and shroud and pall, 

And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, 
Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart, 

Go forth under the open sky and list 
To Nature’s teachings, while from all around— 
Earth and her waters, and the depth of air— 
Comes a still voice: Yet a few days, and thee 
The all-beholding sun shall see no more 
In all his course; nor yet in the cold ground, 
Where thy pale form was laid with many tears, 
Nor in the embrace of ocean shall exist 
Thy image. 

3_ Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim 

Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again; 

And, lost each human trace, surrendering up 
Thine individual being, shalt thou go 


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To mix forever with the elements— 

To be a brother to the insensible rock, 

And to the sluggish clod which the rude swain 
Turns with his share and treads upon. The oak 
Shall send his roots abroad, and pierce thy mold. 

4__Yet not to thine eternal resting-place 

Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish 
Couch more magnificent.—Thou shalt lie down 
With patriarchs of the infant world—with kings, 

The powerful of the earth—the wise, the good— 

’ Fair forms, and hoary seers of ages past, 

All in one mighty sepulcher. The hills 
Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun—the vales 
'Stretching in pensive quietness between— 

The venerable woods—rivers that move 
In majesty, and the complaining brooks 
That make the meadows green; and poured round all, 
Old ocean’s grey and melancholy waste— 

Are but the solemn decorations all 
Of the great tomb of man. 

5— The golden sun, 

The planets, all the infinite hosts of heaven, 

Are shining on the sad abodes of death, 

Through the still lapse of ages. All that tread 
The globe are but a handful to the tribes 
That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings 
Of morning, and the Barcan desert pierce, 

Or lose thyself in the continuous woods 
Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound 
Save his own dashing—yet the dead are there; 

And millions in those solitudes, since first 
The flight of years began, have laid them down 
In their last sleep—the dead reign there alone. 

6— So shalt thou rest; and what if thou withdraw 
In silence from the living, and no friend 
Take note of thy departure? All that breathe 
Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh 
When thou art gone, the solemn brood of care 
Plod on, and each one, as before, will chase 
His favorite phantom; yet all these shall leave 
Their mirth and their employments, and shall come 
And make their bed with thee. As the long train 
Of ages glide away, the sons of men— 

The youth in life’s green spring, and he who goes 
In the full strength of years, matron, and maid, 

And the sweet babe, and the gray-headed man— 
Shall one by one be gathered to thy side 
By those who in their turn shall follow them. 


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7—So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan which moves 
To that mysterious realm where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon; but sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him and lies down to pleasant dreams. 


SURVIVORS OF “BUNKER HILL.” 

DANIEL WEBSTER. (Oration.) 

1. Venerable men! you have come down to us from 
a former generation. Heaven has bounteously length¬ 
ened out your lives, that you might behold this joyous 
day. You are now where you stood fifty years ago, 
this very hour, with your brothers and your neighbors, 
shoulder to shoulder, in the strife of your country. 

2. Behold how altered! the same heavens are, 
indeed, over your heads; the same ocean rolls at your 
feet; but all else, how changed! You hear now no 
roll of hostile cannon: you see no mixed volumes of 
smoke and flame rising from burning Charleston. The 
ground strewed with the dead and dying; the impetu¬ 
ous charge; the steady and successful repulse; the loud 
call to repeated assault; the summoning of all that is 
manly to repeated resistance; a thousand bosoms freely 
and fearlessly bared in an instant to whatever of terror 
there may be in war and death—all these you have 
witnessed, but you witness them no more. 

3. All is peace. The heights of yonder metropolis, 
its towers and roofs, which you then saw filled with 
wives and children, and countrymen, in distress and 
terror, and looking with unutterable emotions for the 
issue of the combat, have presented you today with the 


110 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

sight of its whole happy population, come out to wel¬ 
come and to greet you with a universal jubilee. 

4. Yonder proud ships, by a felicity of position 
appropriately lying at the foot of this mount, and 
seeming fondly to cling around it, are not means of 
annoyance to you, but your country’s own means of dis¬ 
tinction and defense. 

5. All is peace; and God has granted you this 
sight of your country’s happiness e’er you slumber in 
the grave forever. He has allowed you to behold and 
partake the reward of your patriotic toils; and He has 
allowed us, your sons and countrymen, to meet you here, 
and, in the name of the present generation, in the name 
of your country, in the name of liberty, to thank you. 

6. But, alas! you are not all here. Time and the 
sword have thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, 
Stark, Brooks, Reed, Pomeroy, Bridge—our eyes seek 
for you in vain amid this broken band; you are gath¬ 
ered to your fathers, and live only to your country in 
her grateful remembrance, and your own bright example. 
But let us not too much grieve that you have met the 
common fate of men ; you lived, at least, long enough to 
know that your work had been nobly and successfully 
accomplished. You lived to see your country’s inde¬ 
pendence established, and to sheathe your swords from 
war. On the light of liberty you saw arise the light of 
Peace, like 

“ Another morn, 

Rising on mid-noon;” 

and the sky on which you closed your eyes was cloudless. 

7. But—ah ! him! the first great martyr in this 
great cause ! him! the premature victim of his own 
self-devoted heart! him, the head of our civil councils, 
and the destined leader of our militay bands; whom 


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nothing brought thither but the unquenchable fire of his 
own spirit; him, cut off by Providence, in the hour of 
overwhelming anxiety and thick gloom; falling, ere he 
saw the star of his country rise; pouring out his gen¬ 
erous blood like water, before he knew whether it would 
fertilize a land of freedom or of bondage! 

8. How shall I struggle w r ith the emotions that 
stifle the utterance of thy name! Our poor work may 
perish, but thine shall endure! This monument may 
moulder away; the solid ground it rests upon may sink 
down to a level with the sea; but thy memory shall not 
fail! Wheresoever among men a heart shall be found 
that beats to the transports of patriotism and liberty, 
its aspirations shall be to claim kindred with thy spirit. 


THE SOLDIER’S DREAM. 


THOMAS CAMPBELL. 


1— Our bugles sang truce; for the night cloud had lowered, 

And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky; 

And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered— 
The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die. 

2— When reposing that night on my pallet of straw, 

By the wolf-scaring fagot that guarded the slain, 

At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw. 

And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. 

3— Methought from the battle-field’s dreadful array, 

Far, far I had roamed on a desolate track; 

’Twas autumn and sunshine arose on the way 
To the home of my fathers, that welcomed me back. 

4— I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft 

In life’s morning march when my bosom was young; 

I heard my own mountain-goats bleating aloft, 

And knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers sung. 

5— Then pledged me the wine-cup, and fondly I swore 

From my home and my weeping friends never to part; 
My little ones kissed me a thousand times o’er, 

And my wife sobbed aloud in her fullness of heart. 




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6—“Stay, stay with us!—rest; thou art weary and worn !” 
And fain was their war-broken soldier to stay; 

But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, 

And the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. 


SHE IS FAR FROM THE LAND. 


THOMAS MOORE. 


1— She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, 

And lovers around her are sighing; 

But coldly she turns from their gaze, and weeps, 

For her heart in his grave is lying. 

2— She sings the wild songs of her dear native plains, 

Every note which .he loved awaking— 

Ah! little they think, who delight in her strains, 

How the heart of the minstrel is breaking! 

3— He had lived for his love—for his country he died, 

They were all that to life had entwined him— 

Nor soon shall the tears of his country be dried, 

Nor long will his love stay behind him! 

4— Oh! make her a grave where the sunbeams rest, 

Where they promise a glorious morrow; 

They’ll shine o’er her sleep, like a smile from the west 
From her own loved island of sorrow! 


TIRED MOTHERS. 


MRS. ALBERT SMITH. 


1— A little elbow leans upon your knee— 

Your tired knee that has so much to bear— 

A child’s dear eyes are looking lovingly 
From underneath a thatch of tangled hair; 
Perhaps you do not heed the velvet touch 
Of warm, moist fingers holding your’s so tight, 
You do not prize the blessings over much— 

You almost are too tired to pray to-night. 

2— But it is blessedness! A year ago 

I did not see it as I do to-day— 

We are so dull and thankless, and too slow 
To catch the sunshine till it slips away; 

And now it seems surprising strange to me 
That while I wore the badge of motherhood, 

I did not kiss more oft and tenderly 
The little child who brought me only good. 






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110 


3— And if some night when you sit down to rest, 

You miss this elbow from your tired knee— 
This restless curly head from off your breast, 

This lisping tongue that chatters constantly; 

If from your own the dimpled hand had slipped, 
And ne’er would nestle in your palm again, 

If the white feet into the grave had tripped— 

I could not blame you for your heart-ache then. 

4— I wonder so that mothers ever fret 

At little children clinging to their gown; 

Or that the foot-prints, when the days are wet, 
Are ever black enough to make them frown; 

If I could find a little muddy boot, 

Or cap, or jacket on my chamber floor— 

If I could kiss a rosy, restless foot, 

And hear its patter in my home once more— 

6—If I could mend a broken cart to-day, 

To-morrow make a kite to reach the sky, 

There is no woman in God’s world could say 
She was more blissfully content than I; 

But ah! the dainty pillow next my own 
Is never rumpled by a shining head! 

My singing birdling from its nest has flown— 

The little boy I used to kiss is—dead. 


LIBERTY, OR DEATH! 

PATRICK HENRY. 

1. Mr. President: It is natural to man to indulge in 
the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes 
against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that 
siren till she transforms us into beasts. Is this the part 
of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle 
for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the number of 
those who, having eyes, see not, and having ears, hear 
not, the things which so nearly concern their temporal 
salvation? 

2 For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may 
cost, I am willing to know the whole truth—to know 
the worst, and to provide for it. I have but one lamp 
by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of 


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experience. I know of no way of judging the future 
but by the past; and, judging from the past, I wish to 
know what there has been in the conduct of the British 
ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes 
with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace them¬ 
selves and the house. 

3. Is it that insidious smile with which our pe¬ 
tition has been lately received? Trust it not, sir; it will 
prove a snare to your feet! Suffer not yourselves to be 
betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselves how this gracious 
reception of our petition comports with those warlike 
preparations which cover our waters and darken our 
land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love 
and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so un¬ 
willing to be reconciled that force must be called in to 
win back our love? 

4. Let us not deceive ourselves, sir; these are the 
implements of war and subjugation—the last argument 
to which kings resort. I ask, sir, what means this mar¬ 
tial array, if its purpose be not to force us to submis¬ 
sion? Can gentlemen assign any other possible motive 
for it? Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of 
the world, to call for all this accumulation of navies and 
armies? 

5. No, sir, she has none; they are meant for us; 
they can be meant for no other. They are sent over to 
bind and rivet upon us those chains which the British 
ministry have been so long forging. And what have we 
to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? Sir, we 
have been trying that for the last ten years. Have we 
anything new to offer on the subject? Nothing. We 
have held the subject up in every light to which it is 
capable, but it has been all in vain. Shall we resort to 

entreaty and humble supplication? What terms shall 
we find which have not been already exhausted? 


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121 


6. Let us not, I beseech you, sir, deceive ourselves 
longer. Sir, we have done everything that could be 
done to avert the storm that is now coming on. We 
have petitioned ; we have remonstrated; we have suppli¬ 
cated; we have prostrated ourselves before the throne, 
and have implored its interposition to arrest the tyran¬ 
nical hands of the ministry and parlament. Our peti¬ 
tions have been slighted; our remonstrances have 
produced additional violence and insult; our supplica¬ 
tions have been disregarded ; and we have been spurned 
with contempt from the foot of the throne! In vain, 
after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of 
peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room 
for hope. 

7. If we wish to be free; if we mean to preserve 
inviolate those inestimable privileges for which we have 
been so long contending; if we mean not basely to aban¬ 
don the whole struggle in which we have been so long 
engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to 
abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be 
obtained, we must fight! I repeat it, sir: We must 
fight! An appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts is 
all that is left us. 

8. They tell us, sir, that we are weak, unable to 
cope with so formidable an adversary; but when shall 
we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next 
year! Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and 
when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? 
Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 
Shall w r e acquire the means of effectual resistance by 
lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive 
phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us 
hand and foot? 

9. Sir, we are not -weak if we make a proper use of 


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those means which the God of Nature hath placed in 
our power. Three millions of people, armed in the holy 
cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we 
possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy 
can send against us. Besides, sir, we shall not fight 
our battles alone; there is a just God who presides over 
the destinies of nations, and who will raise up friends to 
fight our battles for us. The b.ittle is not to the strong 
alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Be¬ 
sides, sir, we have no election. If we were base enough 
to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. 
There is no retreat, but in submission or slavery! Our 
chains are forged ! Their clanking may be heard on the 
plains of Boston ! The war is inevitable, and let it come! 
I repeat it, sir. Let it come! 

10. It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gen¬ 
tlemen may cry “Peace! peace!’’ but there is no peace. 
The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps 
from the north will bring to our ears the clash of re¬ 
sounding arms! Our brethern are already in the field! 
Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen 
wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace 
so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and 
slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what 
course others may take, but, as for me, give me liberty, 
or give me death! 

MARCO BOZZARIS. 


FITZ-GREENE HALLECK. 

1—At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

In dreams, through camp and court he bore 
The trophies of a conqueror; 



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128 


In dreams,, his song of triumph heard; 

Then wore his monarch’s signet ring; 

Then pressed that monarch’s throne—a king; 

As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, 

As Eden’s garden-bird. 

2— At midnight, in the forest shades, 

Bozzaris ranged his Suliate band, 

True as the steel of their tried blades, 

Heroes in heart and hand. 

There had the Persian’s thousands stood, 

There had the glad earth drunk their blood, 

In old Platsea’s day; 

And now, there breathed that haunted air 
The sons of sires who conquered there, 

With arms to strike, and soul to dare, 

As quick, as far as they. 

3— An hour passed on ; the Turk awoke; 

That bright dream was his last; 

He woke to hear his sentries shriek, 

u To arms! They come—The Greek! The Greek!” 
He woke to die ’mid flame and smoke, 

And shout, and groan, and saber-stroke, 

And death-shots falling thick and fast 
As lightnings from the mountain-cloud, 

And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, 

Bozzaris cheer his band : 

“Strike, till the last armed foe expires! 

Strike, for your altars and your fires! 

Strike, for the green graves of your sires— 

God and your native land!” 

4— They fought like brave men long and well; 

They piled the ground with Moslem slain; 

They conquered, but Bozzaris fell, 

Bleeding at every vein. 

His few surviving comrades saw 

His smile, when rang their proud hurrah, 

And the red field was won; 

Then saw in death his eyelids close, 

Calmly, as to a night’s repose, 

Like* flowers at set of sun. 

6—Come to the bridal chamber, Death! 

Come to the mother when she feels 
For the first time her first-born’s breath; 

Come when the blessed seals 
Which close the pestilence are broke, 

And crowded cities wail its stroke; 


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Come in consumption’s ghastly form, 

The earthquake’s shock, the ocean storm; 
Come when the heart beats high and warm 
With banquet-song, and dance, and wine, 
And thou art terrible; the tear, 

The groan, the knell, the pall, the bier, 

And all we know, or dream, or fear 
Of agony, are thine. 

6— But to the hero, w'hen his sword 

Has won the battle for the free, 

Thy voice sounds like a prophet’s v r ord, 
And in its hollow tones are heard 
The thanks of millions yet to be. 

7— Bozzaris! with the storied brave 

Greece nurtured in her glory’s time, 

Rest thee! there is no prouder grave, 

Even in her own proud clime, 

We tell thy doom without a sigh, 

For thou art freedom’s now, and Fame’s— 
One of the few, the immortal names, 

That were not born to die. 


THE DESERTED VILLAGE. 


OLIVER GOLDSMITH. 


1— Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, 

Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain 
Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, 

And parting summer’s lingering blooms delayed; 
Dear, lovely bowers of innocence and ease, 

Seats of my youth, when every sport could please, 
How often have I loitered o’er thy green, 

Where humble happiness endeared each scene! 

2— How often have I paused on every charm— 

The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, 

The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 

The decent church that topped the neighboring hill, 
The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
For talking age and w r hispering lovers made! 

3— How often havel blessed the coming day, 

When toil remitting lent its turn to play, 

And all the village train from labor free, 

Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree, 




Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


125 


While many a pastime circled in the shade, 

The young contending as the old surveyed; 

And many a gambol frolicked o’er the ground, 

And sleights to art and feats of strength went round. 


4— And still, as each repeated pleasure tired, 

Succeeding sports the mirthful band inspired; 

The dancing pair, that simply sought renown, 

By holding out to tire each other down; 

The swain, mistrustless of his smutted face, 

While secret laughter tittered round the place; 

The bashful virgin’s sidelong looks of love, 

The matron’s glance that would those looks reprove. 

5— These were thy charms, sweet village! sports like these, 
With sweet succession, taught even toil to please; 

These round thy bowers their cheerful influence shed; 
These were thy charms—but all these charms are fled. 
Sweet, smiling village, loveliest of the lawn, 

Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn; 
Amid thy bowers the tyrant’s hand is seen 
And desolation saddens all thy green; 

One only master grasps the whole domain, 

And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain. 


6—No more thy glassy brook reflects the day, 

But, choked with sedges, works its weedy way; 
Along thy glades, a solitary guest, 

The hollow-sounding bittern guards its nest; 
Amid thy desert walks the lapwing flies, 

And tires their echoes with unvaried cries; 

Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, 

And the long grass o’ertops the moldering wall; 
And trembling, shrinking from the spoiler’s hand, 
Far, far away thy children leave the land. 


7—111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. 
Princes and lords may flourish or may fade; 

A breath can make them, as a breath has made; 
But a bold peasantry, their country’s pride, 

When once destroyed, can never be supplied. 

A time there was, ere England’s griefs began, 
When every rood of ground maintained its man; 
For him, light labor spread her wholesome store, 
Just gave what life required, but gave no more; 
His best companions, innocence and health; 

And his best riches, ignorance of wealth. 


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8— But times are altered: trade’s unfeeling train 
Usurp the land and dispossess the swain; 

Along the lawn, where scattered hamlets rose, 

Unwieldy wealth and cumbrous pomp repose, 

And every want to opulence allied, 

And every pang that folly pays to pride. 

Those gentle hours that plenty bade to bloom, 

Those calm desires that asked but little room, 

Those healthful sports that graced the peaceful scene, 
Lived in each look and brightened all the green; 

These, far departing, seek a kinder shore, 

And rural mirth and manners are no more. 

9— Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening’s close, 

Up yonder hill the village murmur ro-e. 

There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, 

The mingled notes came softened from below: 

The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung; 

The sober herd that lowed to meet their young; 

The noisy geese that gabbled o’er the pool; 

The playful children just let loose from school; 

The watch-dog’s voice that bayed the whispering wind, 
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind— 

These, all in sweet confusion, sought the shade, 

And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 

10— But now: the sounds of population fail: 

No cheerful murmurs fluctuate in the gale; 

No busy steps the grass-gTown footway tread, 

For all the bloomy flush of life is fled. 

All but yon widowed, solitary thing, 

That feebly bends beside the plashy spring: 

She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread, 

To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread, 

To pick her wintry fagot from the thorn, 

To seek her nightly shed, and weep till morn— 

She, only, left of all the harmless train, 

The sad historian of the pensive plain. 


INDIAN ELOQUENCE. 

CHIEF MORNING STAR. 

1. “Rest, brothers, rest! You will be avenged. 
The tears of your widows will cease to flow when they 
behold the blood of your murderers, and on seeing their 
scalps, your children shall sing and leap for joy. Rest, 


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127 


brothers, in peace! Rest, we shall have blood!” ( This 
to arouse them.) 

2. “Friends and relations! Three snows have only 
passed over our heads, since we were a poor, miserable 
people. Our enemies were numerous and powerful; we 
were few and weak. Our hearts were as the hearts of 
children. We could not fight like warriors, and were 
driven like deer about the plain. When the thunder 
rolled, and the rains poured, we had no place but the 
rocks, whereon we could lay our heads. Is such the 
case now? No! we have regained possession of the land 
of our fathers, in which they and their fathers’ fathers 
lie buried; our hearts are great within us and 
we are now a nation. Who has produced this 
change? The white man! And are we to treat him 
with ingratitude! The warrior, with the strong arm 
and great heart, will never rob a friend.” (Note the dif¬ 
ference—it was due to the coming of mounted troops—it 
produced a complete change.) 

RED JACKET. 

3. “Brothers, a few suns more, and the Indian will 
live only in history; a few centuries, and that history 
will be colored with the mellow romantic light, in which 
time robes the past. Brothers, at the treaties held for 
the purchase of our lands, the white men, with sweet 
voices and smiling faces , told us they loved us, and they 
would not cheat us, but that the king’s children on the 
other side of the lake, would cheat us. When we go 
on the other side of the lake, the king’s children tell us 
your people will cheat us. These things puzzle our 
heads, and we believe that the Indians must take care 
of themselves, and not trust either in your people, or 
the king’s children. Brothers, our seats were once 


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large, and yours very small. You have now become a 
great people and we have scarcely a place left to spread 
our blankets.” 

CHIEF PUSHMATAHA. 

(At a council in Washington.) 

4. (Referring to his extreme age and likelihood of 
dying on the return :) “My children will walk through 
the forests, and the Great Spirit will whisper in the 
tree-tops, and the flowers will spring up in the trails— 
but Pushmataha will hear not,—he will see the flowers 
no more. He will he gone. His people will know that 
he is dead. The news will come to their ears, as the 
sound of the fall of the mighty oak in the stillness of 
the woods.” 

SPEECH OF BLACKHAWK. 

♦ 

5. “You have taken me prisoner with all my war¬ 
riors ; I am much grieved.My warriors fell 

around me; it began to look dismal. I saw my evil day 
at hand. The sun rose dim on us in the morning, and, 
at night, it sank in a dark cloud, and looked like a ball 
of fire. That was the last sun that shone on Black 
Hawk. His heart is dead, and no longer heats quick in 
his bosom. He is now a prisoner to the white man; 
they will do with him as they wish. But he can stand 
torture, and is not afraid of death. He is no coward. 
Black Hawk is an Indian. 

6. He has done nothing, for which an Indian 
ought to he ashamed. He has fought for his country¬ 
men, against white men who came, year after year, to 
cheat them, and take away their lands. You know the 
cause of our making war. . . . The white man speaks 
had of the Indian, and looks at him spitefully. But the 
Indian does not tell lies; Indians do not steal, 



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7. An Indian who is as bad as a white man could 
not live in our nation; he would be put to death, and be 
eaten up by wolves. The white men are bad school¬ 
masters ; they carry false books, and deal in false ac¬ 
tions; they smile in the face of the poor Indian to cheat 
him ; they shake him by the hand to gain his confidence, 
to make him drunk, and to deceive him. We told them 
to let us alone, and keep away from us; but they fol¬ 
lowed on, and beset our paths, and they coiled them¬ 
selves among us, like the snake. They poisoned us by 
their touch. 

8. We were not safe. We lived in danger. We 
were becoming like them, hypocrites and liars,—all talk¬ 
ers and no workers. We looked up to the Great Spirit. 
We went to our father. (President of United States.) 
We were encouraged. His great council gave us fair 
words and big promises, but we obtained no satisfaction, 
—things were growing worse. There were no deer in 
the forest. The opossum and beaver were fled; the 
springs were drying up, and our people were without 
victuals to keep them from starving. 

9. We called a great council, and made a large fire. 
The spirit of our fathers arose and spoke to us to avenge 
our wrongs. We all spoke before the council-fire. It 
was warm and pleasant. We set up the war whoop and 
dug up the tomahawk; our knives were ready, and the 
heart of Black Hawk swelled high in his bosom, when 
he led his warriors to battle. He is satisfied. He will 
go to the world of spirits contented. He has done his 
duty. His father will meet him .there and commend 
him. 

10. Black Hawk is a true Indian, and disdains to 
cry like a woman. He feels for his wife, his children, 
and his friends. But he does not care for himself. He 


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cares for the nation, and the Indians. They will suffer. 
He laments their fate. The white men do not scalp the 
heads :; but they do worse,—they poison the heart\ it is 
not pure with them. His countrymen will not be 
scalped , but they will, in a few years, become like the 
white men, so that you cannot trust them. . . . 

11. Farewell, my nation! Black Hawk tried to save 
you, and avenge your wrongs. . . He has been taken 
prisoner, and his plans are stopped. He can do no more! 
He is near his end. His sun is setting, and he will rise 
no more. Farewell to Black Hawk!” 

THE INDIAN HUNTER. 


ELIZA COOK. 


1— Oh! why does the white man follow my path, 

Like the hound on the tiger’s track? 

Does the flush on my dark cheek waken his wrath,— 
Does he covet the bow at my back? 

2— He has rivers and seas, where the billows and breeze 

Bear riches for him alone; 

And the sons of the wood never plunge in the flood, 
Which the white man calls his owd. 

3— Why, then, should he come to the streams where none 

But the red man dares to swim? 

Why, why, should he wrong the hunter,—one 
Who never did harm to him? 

4— The father above thought fit to give 

The white man corn and wine; 

There are golden fields where he may live, 

But the forest shades are mine. 

6—The eagle hath its place of rest; 

The wild horse-where to dwell; 

And the spirit that gave the bird its nest, 

Made me a home as well. 

6—Then back! go back from the red man’s track; 

For the hunter’s eyes gr«*w dim, 

To find that the white man wrongs the one 
Who never did harm to him. 




Gumming*' Envy clop a&diu, 

ESSAY ON CRITICISM. 


ALEXANDER POPE. 


1— ’Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill 
Appear in writing or in judging ill; 

But of the two, Jess dang’rous is the offense 
To tire our patience, than mislead our sense. 

Some few in that, but numbers err in this. 

Ten censure wrong for one who writes amiss; 

’Tis with our judgments as our watches, none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 

In poets as true genius is but rare, 

True taste as seldom is tlie critic’s share; 

Both must alike from heaven derive their l'gtit, 
These born to judge, as well as those to write. 

Let such teach others who themselves excel, 

And censure freely who have written well. 

Authors are partial to their wit ’tis true, 

But are not critics to their judgment too? 

2— Some are bewildered in the maze of schools. 

And some made coxcombs nature meant but fools. 
In search of wit these lose their common sense, 

And then turn critics in their own defense: 

All fools have still an itching to deride, 

And fain would be upon the laughing side. 

Some have at first for wits, then poets past, 

Turned critics next, and proved plain fools at last. 
Some neither can for wits nor critics pass, 

As heavy mules are neither horse nor ass. 

But you who seek to give and merit fame, 

And justly bear a critic’s noble name, 

Launch not beyond your depth, but be discreet. 

And mark that point where sense and dullness meet 

3— Nature to all things fixed the l ; mits fit. 

And wisely curbed proud man’s pretending wit. 

One science only will one genius fit; 

So vast is art, so narrow human wit: 

Like kings we lose the conquest gained before, 

By vain ambition still to make them more. 

First follow nature, and your judgment frame 
By her just standard, which is st'll the same: 
Unerring nature, ‘-‘till divinely bright. 

One clear, unchanged, and universal light, 

Life, force, and beauty, must to all impart, 

At once the source, and end, and test of art. 


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4—Of all the causes which conspire to blind 

Man’s erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 

What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 

Is pride, the never-failing voice of fools. 

Whatever nature has in worth denied, 

She gives in large recruits of needful pride; 

For as in bodies, thus in souls, we find 

What wants in blood and spirits, swelled with wind: 

Pride, where wit fails steps in to our defense, 

And fills up all the mighty void of sense. 

If once right reason drives that cloud away, 

Truth breaks upon us with resistless day. 

Trust not yourself: but your defects to know, 

Make use of every friend—and every foe. 

6—A little learning is a dang’rous thing; 

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring: 

Their > hallow drafts intoxicate the brain, 

And drinking largely sobers us again. 

Fired at first sight with what the muse imparts, 

In fearless youth we tempt the heights of arts, 

While from the bounded level of our mind 
Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind ; 

But more adyanced, behold with strange surprise 
New distant scenes of endless science rise; 

So pleased at first the tow’ring Alps we try, 

Mount o’er its vales, and seem to tread the sky, 

The eternal snows appear already past, 

And the first clouds and mountains seem the last; 
But, those attained, we tremble to survey 
The growing labors of the lengthened way, 

Th’ increasing prospect tires our wand’ring eyes, 

Hills peep o’er hills, and Alps on Alps arise! 

6—Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

Thinks what ne’er was, nor is, nor e’er shall be. 

In every work regard the writer's end. 

Since none can compass more than they intend; 

And if the means be just, the conduct true, 

Applause, in spite of trivial faults, is due. 

Avoid extremes; and shun the faults of such, 

Who still are pleased too little or too much. 

At every trifle scorn to take offense, 

That always shows great pride, or little sense; 

Those heads, as stomachs, are not sure the best, 
Which nauseate all. and nothing can digest. 

Yet let not each gay turn thy rapture move; 

For fools admire, but men of sense approve: 

As things seem large which we through mists descry, 
Dullness is ever apt to magnify. 


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133 


7— Some ne’er advance a judgment of their own, 

But catch the spreading notion of the town: 

They reason and conclude by precedent, 

And own stale nonsense which they ne’er invent. 

Some judge of Author’s names, not works, and then 
Nor praise nor blame the writings, but the men. 

Of all this servile herd, the worst is he 
That in proud dullness joins with quality. 

Some praise at morning what they blame at night; 

But always think the last opinion right. 

While their weak heads like towns unfortified, 

’Twixt sense and nonsense daily change their side. 

Ask them the cause; they’re wiser still they say; 

And still to-morrow’s wiser than to-day. 

We think our fathers fools so wise we grow; 

Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 

8— Learn then what morals critics ought to show, 

For ’tis but half a judge’s task to know. 

’Tis not enough, taste, judgment, learning join; 

In all you speak, let truth and candour shine: 

That not alone what to your sense is due 
All may allow, but seek your friendship too. 

Be silent always when you doubt your sense; 

Some positive, persisting fops we know, 

Who, if once wrong, will needs be always so; 

’Tis not enough, your counsel still be true; 

Blunt truths more mischief than nice falsehoods do; 

Be niggards of advice on the pretense; 

For the worst avarice is that of sense; 

With mean complacence ne’er betray your trust, 

Nor be so civil as to prove unjust. 

Fear not the anger of the wise to raise; 

Those best can bear reproof, who merit praise. 

9— Such shameless bards we have; and yet ’tis true, 

There are as mad abandoned critics too. 

The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read 
With loads of learned lumber in his head, 

With his own tongue still edifies his ears, 

And always listening to himself appears. 

All books, he reads, and all he reads assails, 

From Dryden’s fables down to Durfey’s tales. 

With him, most authors steal their works, or buy; 

Garth did not write his own Dispensary. 

No place so sacred from such fops is barred, 

Nor is Paul’s Church more safe than Paul’s ( hurchyard: 
Nay, fly to altars; there they’ll talk you dead: 

For fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 


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TELL ON THE ALPS. 


KNOWLES. 


1— Once more I breathe the mountain air; once more 
I tread my own free hills! My lofty soul 
Throws all its fetters off: in its proud flight, 

’Tis like the new-fledged eaglet, whose strong wing 
Soars to the sun it long has gazed upon 
With eye undazzled. O ye mighty race 
That stand like frowning giants, fixed to guard 
My own proud land; why did ye not hurl down 
The thundering avalanche, when at your feet 
The base usurper stood? A touch—a breath, 

Nay, even the breath of prayer, ere now, has brought 
Destruction on the hunter's head; and yet 
The tyrant passed in safety. God of Heaven! 

Where slept thy thunder-bolts? 

2— O, liberty! 

Thou choicest gift of Heaven, and wanting which 
Life is as nothing; hast thou then forgot 
Thy native home? Must the feet of slaves 
Pollute this glorious scene? It can not be. 

Even as the smile of heaven can pierce the depths 
Of these dark caves, and bid the wild flowers bloom 
In spots where man has nev r dared to tread, 

So thy sweet influence still is seen amid 

These beetling cliffs. Some hearts still beat for thee, 

And bow alive to heaven; thy spirit lives, 

Ay, and shall live, w hen even the very name 
Of tyrant in forgot. 

3— Lo! While T gaze 

Upon the mist that wreathes yon mountain’s brow, 
The sunbeam touches it, and it becomes 
A crown of glory on his hoary head ; 

O! is not this a presage of the dawn 
Of freedom o’er the wnrhi? Hear me, then, bright 
And beaming heaven ! While kneeling thus I vow 
To live for freedom, or with her to die. 

4— Oh! with what pride I used 

To walk these hills, and look up to my God, 

And bless Him that it was so. It v/as free,— 

From end to end, from cliff to lake ’twas free,— 

Free as our torrents are. that leap our rocks, 

And plow our valleys, without asking leave,— 

Or, as our peaks that wear their caps of snow, 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia, 


185 


In very presence of the regal sun! 

How happy was I in it then! I loved 
Its very storms! Yes, I have sat and eyed 
The thunder breaking from its cloud, and smiled 
To see him shake his lightnings o’er my head, 

And think I had no master save his own! 

5—Ye knew the jutting cliff, round which a track 
Up hither winds, whose base is but the brow 
To such another one, with scanty room 
For two abreast to pass? O’ertaken there 
By the mountain blast, I’ve laid me flat along, 

And while gust followed gust more furiously, 

As if to sweep me o’er the horrid brink, 

And I have thought of other lands, where storms 
Are summer flaws to those of mine, and just 
Have wished me there—the thought that mine was free 
Has checked that wish, and I have raised my head, 
And cried in thralldom to that furious wind, 

“Blow on! This is the land of Liberty!” 

AN ORDER FOR A PICTURE. 


ALICE CARY. 


1— O good painter, tell me true, 

Has your hand the cunning to draw 
Shapes of things you never saw? 

Aye? Well, here is an order for you. 

2— Woods and corn-fields a little brown; 

The picture must not be over-bright, 

Yet all in the golden and gracious light 
Of a cloud when the summer sun is down: 
Alway and alway. night and morn, 

Woods upon woods, with fields of corn 
Lying between them, not quite sere, 

And not in the full, thick, leafy bloom 
Where the wind can hardly find breathing room 
Under their tassels; cattle near 

Biting shorter the short green grass, 

A hedge of sumach and sassafras, 

With blue-birds twittering all around— 

(Ah, good painter, you can’t paint sound!) 
These, and the house where 1 was born, 

Low and little and black and old. 

With children as many as it can hold 
All at the windows, open wide, 



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Heads and shoulders clear outside, 

And fair young faces all a-blush. 

Perhaps you have seen some day 
Roses crowding the self-same way 
Out of a wilding way-side bush. 

3— Listen closer. When you have done 

With woods and corn-field and grazing herds, 
A lady, the loveliest ever the sun 
Looked down upon, you must paint for me. 
Oh, if I could only make you see 
The clear blue eyes, the tender smile 
The sovereign sweetness, the gentle grace, 
The woman’s soul and the angel’s face 
That are beaming on me all the while; 

I netd not speak these foolish words; 

Yet one word tells you all I would say— 

She is my mother; you will agree 
That all the rest may be thrown away. 

4— Two little urchins at her knee 
You must paint, sir; one like me; 

The other with a clearer brow, 

And the light of his adventurous eyes 
Flashing with boldest enterprise. 

At ten years old he went to sea— 

God knoweth if he be living now. 

He sailed in the good ship “Commodore;” 
Nobody ever crossed her track 
To bring us news, and she never came back. 
Ah, ’tis twenty long years and more 
Since that old ship went out of the bay 
With my great-hearted brother on her deck. 

I watched him till he shrank to a speck, 

And his face was towards me all the way. 
Bright his hair was, a golden brown, 

The time we stood at our mother’s knee. 

That beauteous head, if it did go down, 
Carried sunshine into the sea. 

5— Out in the fields, one summer night, 

We were together, half afraid 

Of the corn leaves’ rustling, and of the shade 
Of the high hills stretching so still and far; 
Loitering till after the low little light 
Of the candle shone through the open door. 
Afraid to go home, sir, for one of us bore 
A nest-full of speckled, thin-shelled eggs; 
The other a bird, held fast by the legs, ' 

Not as big as a straw of wheat. 


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137 


The berries we gave her she wouldn’t eat, 

But cried and cried till we held her bill, 

So slim and shining, to keep her still. 

6— At last we stood at our mother’s knee; 

Do you think, sir, if you try, 

You can paint the look of a lie? 

If you can pray have the grace 
To put it solely in the face 
Of the urchin that is likest me. 

I think it was solely mine, indeed; 

But that’s no matter—paint it so. 

The eyes of our mother (take good heed!) 

Looking not on the nest full of eggs, 

Nor the fluttering bird held so fast by the legs, 

But straight through our faces, down to our lies; 

And, oh, with such injured, reproachful surprise! 

I felt my heart bleed where the glance went, 

As though a sharp blade struck through it. 

7— You, sir, know 

That you on canvas are to repeat 
Things that are fairest, things most sweet: 

Woods and cornfields and mulberry tree; 

The mother; the lads, with their bird, at her knee. 

But, oh, that look of reproachful woe! 

High as the heavens your name I’ll shout, 

If you paint me the picture and leave that out. 

THE THUNDER STORM. 

GEORGE D. PRENTICE. 

1. It was a bright morning in the middle of 
August. The leaves hung silent in the woods. The 
waters of the bay had forgotten their undulations. The 
flowers were bending their heads as if dreaming of the 
rainbow and dew; and the whole atmosphere was of so 
soft and luxurious sweetness that it seemed a cloud of 
roses scattered down by the hands of Peri from the far- 
off Garden of Paradise. The little girl at my side was in 
a delirium of happiness, and her clear, sweet voice rang 
out upon the air as often as she heard the tones of some 
favorite bird, or found some strange and lovely flower 
in her frolic wanderings. The unbroken and almost 


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supernatural stillness continued until noon. Then, for 
the first time, the indications of an approaching tempest 
became manifest. 

2. On the summit of a mountain, at the distance 
of about a mile, the folds of a dark cloud became sud¬ 
denly visible, and, at the same instant, a hollow roar 
came down upon the winds, as if it had been the sound 
of waves in a rocky cavern. The cloud rolled out like * 
a banner unfolded upon the air, but still the atmosphere 
was as calm, and the le tves as im-tionless, as before, 
and there was not even a quiver among the sleeping 
waters t > t 11 of the coming hurricane. 

3. To escape the tempest was impossible. As the 
only resort, we ft d to an oak that stood at the foot of a 
tall and rugged prec'pioe. Here we stood watching the 
clouds marshaling themselves like bloody giants in the 
sky. In a few minutes the storm was upon us with all 
its wild fury. The clouds opened ; the rocks tottered to 
their foundations; a roar, like the groan of the universe, 
filled the air, and I felt myself blinded and thrown, I 
knew not width* r. How long I remained insensible I 
cannot tell; but when consciousness returned the vio¬ 
lence of the tempest was aba ing, the roar of the winds 
had ceased, and the deep tones of the thunder-clouds 
came in faint murmurs from the Eastern hills. 

4. I arose and looked tremblingly around. The 
little girl was there stretched upon the green earth; the 
handerchief upon her neck was slightly rent, and a 
single dark spot upon her bo om told where the 
pathway of death had been. Her bright, disheveled 
hair clustered sweetly around her brow; the look of 
terror had faded from her lips, and infant smiles alone 
were pictured there. 

5. Many years have gone by on wings of light 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


139 


and shadow; but the scene I have portrayed still comes 
over me at times with terrible distinctness. The oak 
yet stands at the base of the precipice, but its limbs are 
black and dead; and the hollow trunk, looking upward 
to the sky as if “calling to the cl >uds for drink,” is an 
emblem of rapid and noiseless decay. 

6. A year ago 1 visited the spot, and the memory 
of by gone years came mournfully back to me. I thought 
of the little innocent being who fell by my side like some 
beautiful flower of Spring rent up by a whirlwind in the 
midst of blossoming. But I remembered, and, oh, there 
was joy in that memory, that she had gone where no 
lightnings slumber in the folds of the rainbow cloud, 
and where the sunlit waters are broken only by the 
storm-breath of Omnipotence. 

OUR DEAD. 


ADELAIDE A. PROCTER. 


1— Nothing is our own: We hold our pleasures 
Just a little while, ere they are fled: 

One by one life robs us of our treasures; 

Nothing is our own except our Dead. 

2— They are ours, and hold in faithful keeping, 

Safe forever, all they took away, 

Cruel life can never stir that sleeping. 

Cruel time can never seize that prey. 

3— Justice pales; truth fades; stars fall from Heaven; 
Human are the great whom we revere; 

No true crown of honor can be given, 

Till we place it on a funeral bier. 

4— How the children leave us; and no traces 
Linger of that smiling angel band; 

Gone, forever gone; and in their places 

W eary men and anxious women stand. 

6—Yet we hnve some little ones, still ours; 

They have kept the baby smile we know, 

Which we kissed one day, and hid with flowers 
On their dead white faces long ago. 




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6— When our joy is lost—and life will take it— 
Then no memory of the past remains; 

Save with some strange, cruel sting, to make it 
Bitterness beyond all present pains. 

7— Death, more tender-hearted, leaves to sorrow 
Still the radiant shadow, fond regret: 

We shall find, in some far, bright to-morrow, 
Joy that he has taken, living yet. 

8— Is love ours, and do we dream we know it, 
Bound with all our heart-strings, all our own? 
Any cold and cruel dawn may show it, 
Shattered, desecrated, overthrown. 

9— Only the dead hearts forsake us never; 

Death’s last kiss has been the mystic sign 
Consecrating Love our own forever, 

Crowning it eternal and divine. 

10—So when fate would fain besiege our city, 

Dim our gold, or make our flowers fall, 

Death, the angel, comes in love and pity, 

And, to save our treasures, claims them all. 

SOLITUDE—SO GOES THE WOELD. 


ELLA WHEELER WILCOX. 


1— Laugh, and the world laughs with you, 

Weep, and you weep alone; 

For this brave old earth must borrow its mirth, 
It has trouble enough of its own. 

2— Sing, and the hills will answer, 

Sigh, it is lost on the air; 

The echoes bound to a joyful sound 
But shrink from voicing care. 

3— Eejoice, and men will seek you, 

Grieve, and they turn and go; 

They want full measure of all your pleasure 
But they do not need your woe. 

4— Be glad, and your friends are many, 

Be sad, and you lose them all; 

There are none to decline your nectar’d wine, 
But alone you must drink life’s gall. 

5— Feast, and your halls are crowded, 

Fast, and the world goes by; 

Succeed and give, and it helps you live, 

But no man can help you die. 




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141 


6—There is room in halls of pleasure 
For a long and lordly train; 

But one by one we must all file on 
Through the narrow aisles of pain. 


THE GRAVES OF A HOUSEHOLD. 


MRS. FELICIA HEMANS. 


1— They grew in beauty side by side, 

They filled one home with glee; 

Their graves are severed far and wide 
By mountain stream and sea. 

2— The same fond mother bent at night 

O’er each fair sleeping brow; 

She had each folded flower in sight— 
Where are those dreamers now? 

3— One, midst the forest of the west, 

By a dark stream is laid; 

The Indian knows his place of rest, 

Far in the cedar shade. 

4— The sea, the lone blue sea, hath one — 

He lies where pearls lie deep; 

He was the loved of all; yet none 
O’er his low bed may weep. 

5— One sleeps where Southern vines are drest 

Above the noble slain; 

He wraps his colors round his breast 
On the blood-red field of Spain. 

6— And one - o’er her the myrtle showers 

Its leaves by soft winds fanned; 

She faded midst 1 talian flowers — 

The last of that bright band. 

7— And parted thus they rest, who played 

Beneath the same green tree; 

Whose voices mingled as they prayed 
Around one parent knee. 

8— They that with smiles lit up the hall, 

And cheered with song the hearth; 

Alas, for love! If thou wert all, 

And naught beyond, oh, Earth! 




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THE CHIMES OF AMSTERDAM. 


MINNIE E. KENNEY. 


1— Far up above the city, 

In the gray old belfry tower, 

The chimes ring out their music 
Each day at the twilight hour: 

Above the din and the tumult, 

And the rush of the busy street, 

You can hear their solemn voices, 

In an anthem clear and sweet. 

2— When the busy day is dying, 

And the sun-set gates, flung wide, 
Mark a path of crimson glory 
Upon the restless tide, 

As the white-winged ships drop anchor, 
And furl their snowy sails, 

While the purple twilight gathers 
And the glowing crimson pales; 

3— Then from the old gray belfry, 

The chimes peal out again, 

And a hush succeeds the tumult, 

As they ring their sweet refrain; 

No sound of discordant clangor 
Mars the perfect melody, 

But each attuned by a master hand, 
Has its place in the harmony. 

4— 1 climbed the winding stairway 

That led to the belfry tower, 

As the sinking sun in the westward 
Heralded twilight’s hour; 

For I thought that surely the music 
Would be clearer and sweeter far 
Than when through the din of the city 
It seemed to float from afar. 

6—But lo, as I neared the belfry, 

No sound of music was there, 

Only a brazen clangor 
Disturbed the quiet air! 

Tim ringer stood at a key-board, 

Far down beneath the chimes, 

And patiently struck the noisy keys, 

As he had uncounted times. 

0 -He had never heard the music, 

Though every day it swept 
Out over the sea and the city, 




Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 143 

And in lingering echoes crept. 

He knew not how many sorrows 
Were cheered by the evening strain, 

And how many men paused to listen 
As they heard the sweet refrain. 

7— He only knew his duty, 

And he did it with patient care; 

But he could not hear the music 
That flooded the quiet air; 

Only the jar and the clamor 
Fell harshly on his ear, 

And he missed the mellow chiming 
That every one else could hear. 

8— So we from our quiet watch-towers 

May be sending a sweet refrain, 

And gladdening the lives of the lowly, 

Though we hear not a single strain; 

Our work may seem but discord, 

Though we do the best we can, 

But others will hear the music 
If we carry out God’s plan. 

9 -Far above a world of sorrow 
And o’er the eternal sea, 

It will blend with angelic anthems 
In sweetest harmony; 

It will ring in lingering echoes 
Through the corridors of the sky, 

And the strains of earth’s minor music 
Will swell the strains on high. 

SPARTACUS TO THE GLADIATORS. 

REV. ELIJAH KELLOGG. 

1. It had been a day of triumph at Capua. Len- 
tulus returning with victorious eag ! es, had amused the 
populace with the sports of the amphitheater to an ex¬ 
tent thitherto unknown, even in that luxurious city. 
The shouts of revelry had died away, the roar of the 
lion had ceased, the last loiterer had retired from the 
banquet, and the lights in the palace of the victor were 
extinguished. The moon, piercing the tissue of fleecy 
clouds, silvered the dew drops on the corslet of the 


I 


144 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

Roman sentinel, and tipped the dark waters of Vultur- 
nus with a wavy, tremulous light. 

2. No sound was heard save the last sob of some 
retiring wave, telling its story to the smooth pebbles of 
the beach, and then all was still as the breast when the 
spirit has departed. In the deep recesses of the amphi¬ 
theatre, a band of gladiators were assembled, their mus¬ 
cles still knotted with the agony of conflict, the foam 
upon their lips, the scowl of battle yet lingering on 
their brows, when Spartacus, starting forth from amid 
the throng, thus addressed them : 

3. “Ye call me Chief; and ye do well to call him 
chief who for twelve long years has met upon the arena 
every shape of man or beast the broad empire of Rome 
could furnish, and who never yet lowered his arm. If 
there be one among you who can say that ever, in pub¬ 
lic fight or private brawl, my actions did belie my 
tongue, let him stand forth and say it. If there be 
three m all your company dare face me on the bloody 
sands, let them come on. 

4. And yet I was not always thus,—a hired 
butcher, a savage chief of still more savage men! My 
ancestors came from old Sparta, and settled among the 
vine-clad rocks and citron groves of Syrasela. My 
early life ran quiet as the brooks by which I sported; 
and when, at noon, I gathered the sheep beneath the 
shade, and played upon the shepherd’s flute, there was 
a friend, the son of a neighbor, to join me in the 
pastime. We led our flocks to the same pasture, and 
partook together our rustic meal. 

5. One evening, after the sheep were folded, and 
we were all seated beneath the myrtle which shaded our 
cottage, my grandsire, an old man, was telling of Mar¬ 
athon and Leuctra: and how, in ancient times, a little 


GummingJ&ncyclopCBdia. 145 

band of Spartans, in a defile of the mountains, had 
withstood a whole army. I did not know then what war 
was; but my cheeks burned, I knew not why, and I 
clasped the knees of that venerable man, until my 
mother, parting the hair from off my forehead, kissed 
my throbbing temples, and bade me go to rest, and think 
no more of those old tales and savage wars. 

6. That very night the Romans landed on our 
coast. I saw the breast that had nourished me trampled 
by the hoof of the war-horse, the bleeding body of my 
father flung amidst the blazing rafters of our dwelling. 
Today I killed a man in the arena; and, when I broke 
his helmet-clasp, behold! he was my friend. He knew me, 
smiled faintly, gasped, and died,—the same sweet smile 
upon his lips that I had marked when, in adventurous 
boyhood, we scaled the lofty cliff to pluck the first ripe 
grapes, and bear them home in childish triumph. 

7. I told the pretor that the dead man had been 
my friend, generous and brave; and I begged that I 
might bear away the body, to burn it on a funeral pile, 
and mourn over its ashes. Ay! upon my knees, amid 
the dust and blood of the arena, I begged that poor boon; 
while all the assembled maids and matrons, and the rab¬ 
ble, shouted in derision, deeming it rare sport, forsooth, 
to see Rome’s gladiator turn pale and tremble at the 
sight of that piece of bleeding clay! 

8. The pretor drew back as I were pollution, 
and sternly said, ‘Let the carrion rot; there are no noble 
men but Romans.’ And so, fellow-gladiators, mustyou, 
and so must I, die like dogs. Oh Rome ! Rome ! Thou 
hast been a tender nurse to me! Ay ! thou hast given to 
that poor, gentle, timid shepherd lad, who never knew a 
harsher tone than a flute-note, muscles of iron and a 
heart of flint,—taught him to drive the sword through 


146 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


plaited mail and links of rugged brass, and warm it in 
the marrow of his foe; to gaze in the glaring eyeballs 
of the fierce Numidian lion, even as a boy upon a laugh¬ 
ing girl. And he shall pay thee back until the yellow 
Tiber is red as frothing wine, and in its deepest ooze 
thy life-blood lies curdled! 

9. Ye stand here like giants as ye are ! The strength 
of brass is in your toughened sinews; but to-morrow 
some Roman Adonis, breathing sweet perfume from his 
curly locks, shall with his lily fingers pat your red 
brawn, and bet his sesterces upon your blood. Hark! 
hear ye yon lion roaring in his den? ’Tis three days 
since he tasted flesh; but to-morrow he shall break his 
fast upon yours, and a dainty meal for him ye will be! 
If ye are beasts, then stand here like fat oxen, awaiting 
the butcher’s knife. If ye are men, follow me! Strike 
down yon guard, gain the mountain-pass, and there do 
bloody work, as did your sires at old Thermopylae. 

10. Is Sparta dead? Is the old Grecian spirit fro¬ 
zen in your veins, that you do crouch and cower like a 
belabored hound beneath his master’s lash? O com¬ 
rades ! warriors! Thracians! if we must fight, let us 
fight for ourselves ! If we must slaughter, let us slaugh¬ 
ter our oppressors! If we must die, let it be under the 
clear sky, by the bright waters, in noble, honorable 
battle! ’ ’ 

[SHERIDAN’S RIDE, 

THOMAS BUCHANAN READ, 

1—Up from the south at break of day, 

Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay, 

T he affrighted air with a shudder bore, 

Like a herald in haste to the chieftain’s door, 

The terrible grumble, and rumble, and roar, 

Telling the battle was on once more, 

And Sheridan twenty miles away 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


147 


2 And wider still those billows of war 
Thundered along the horizon’s bar; 

And louder yet into Winchester rolled 
The roar of that red sea uncontrolled, 

Making the blood of the listener cold, 

As he thought of the stake in that fiery fray, 

And Sheridan twenty miles away. 

3— But there is a road from Winchester town, 

A good, broad highway leading down; 

And there through the flush of the morning light, 

A steed as black as the steeds of night 
Was seen to pass, as with eagle flight, 

As if he knew the terrible need; 

He stretched away with his utmost speed; 

Hills rose and fell; but his heart was gay, 

With Sheridan fifteen miles away. 

4— Still sprung from those swift hoofs, thundering south, 
The dust like smoke from the cannon’s mouth: 

Or the trail of a comet, sweeping faster and faster, 
Foreboding to traitors the doom of disaster. 

The heart of the steed, and the heart of the master, 

Were beating like prisoners assaulting their walls, 
Impatient to be where the battle-field calls; 

Every nerve of the charger was strained to full play, 
With Sheridan only ten miles away. 

6—Under his spurning feet the road 
Like an arrowy Alpine river flowed, 

And the landscape sped away behind 
Like an ocean flying before the wind, 

And the steed, like a bark fed with furnace ire, 

Swept on, with his wild eye full of fire. 

But lo! he is nearing his heart’s desire; 

He is snuffing the smoke of the roaring fray, 

With Sheridan only five miles away. 

6—The first that the General saw were the groups 
Of stragglers, and then the retreating troops. 

What was done? What to do? a glance told him both; 
Then striking his spurs with a terrible oath, 

He dashed down the line ’mid a storm of huzzas, 

And the wave of retreat checked its course there, because 
The sight of the master compelled it to pause. 

With foam and with dust the black charger was gray; 

By the flash of his eye, and his red nostrils’ play, 

He seemed to the whole great army to say, 

“I have brought you Sheridan all the way 
From Winchester, down to save the day.” 


148 


Cummings 1 Encyclopedia. 


7—Hurrah! hurrah for Sheridan! 

Hurrah! hurrah for horse and man! 

And when their statues are placed on high, 

Under the dome of the Union sky, 

The American Soldier’s Temple of Fame, 

There with the glorious general’s name, 

He it said, in letters both bold and bright, 

“Here is the steed that saved the day, 

By carrying Sheridan into the fight, 

From Winchester, twenty miles away!” 

AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 

FRANK P. CUMMINGS. 

1. The Declaration of Independence! Immortal 
document! How coolly, how dispassionately, how rev¬ 
erently we read it now and applaud its sentiments. 
How, like the soft whisper of a benediction, it falls on 
our ears. How we store away in memory the jewels of 
daring, outspoken, defiant sentiments it contains. How 
fancy carries us back, far back across the years to that 
street in Philadelphia, where the surging throng awaited 
long hours for its coming, while the prayers of an en¬ 
slaved people went forth to the Throne of Grace. No 
idle fancy, no indolent curiosity or indifferent sentiment 
called together that throng that surged about that ever 
historic spot. It was no vain dream of romance, or cu¬ 
rious thirst of ambition that inspired that heroic few to 
defy the anger of a tyrant king. They did not come to 
make a holiday, or to disport themselves in idle pas¬ 
time or empty pageantry. 

2. They came when the rebelling spirit of an en¬ 
slaved people was seething to revolt: when the mutter¬ 
ing storm that had slumbered for years, was breaking 
about them. Outside, hearts were beating with the 
fostered hope that the action of those within would be a 
declaration of revolt, while within, every tone and syl¬ 
lable was weighed and measured with painful and 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


140 


breathless deliberation. The hopes, the liberties, the 
very lives of millions yet unborn were hanging upon 
their decision. Liberty lay bleeding in sorrow under 
the heel of oppression, and the fairest land of God’s do¬ 
main had become a place of bondage. If this challenge 
went forth, a price would be put upon the heads of that 
devoted few, and the flood-gates of war opened upon 
their hapless countrymen. If they refused, the chains 
of slavery would be tightened, and the western world 
remain the footstool of kings. 

3. Oh, my countrymen, what an hour was that! 
The black pall of gloom hung dark and heavy over all 
this fair land of the west. The last vestige of hope of 
a reconciliation with England had vanished. Petition, 
expostulation, reason and supplication alike had failed. 
Fathers saw the burdens they had hopelessly borne for a 
lifetime transferred to the shoulders of their sons, and 
their heritage a lasting measure of dependency and ser¬ 
vitude to the scions of an alien power. The fruits of 
their toil were squandered to glut the pampered luxury 
of a fort ign aristocracy. They had no voice in the 
councils of State. Driven from one stage of degrada¬ 
tion and humiliation to another, they were forced to 
submit to the most tyrannical and oppressive laws ever 
framed for the subjugation and debasement of man. 

4. They were free-men, they could not be slaves! 

. . . They came of a sturdy race; a race whose ances¬ 
tors had plowed the trackless ocean in quest of liberties 
denied them at home. They knew what the price of 
liberty meant, and what the galling scourges of oppres¬ 
sion meant. Many of their ancestors had left fair lands 
and happy homes to escape the very tyranny that now 
surrounded them. England had spread her empire from 
sun to sun; she had subjugated Scotland and Wales, 
and had driven from his own fair land the unhappy 


150 


Cummings ’ Encyclopcedia. 


Celt, and forced him to seek shelter in a stranger’s land 
beneath a stranger’s roof. She had flaunted her banner 
on land and sea, in unholy conquest, and traced her 
history for centuries amid fire, spoliation and ruin, and 
now with an iron heel was crushing the life and hope 
out of the bravest and noblest of earth’s children, the 
American colonists. 

5, American blood had already been spilled. The 
red-dyed sword of Lexington and Bunker Hill marked 
the pathway of the red-coated minions of King George. 
Widows were weeping, and the wail of latherless 
children cried to heaven. Camp fires were lighted; 
mothers were buckling the swords upon their sons, plac¬ 
ing muskets in their hands, and consecrating them to 
the cause of humanity and liberty. It was in these 
trying hours that a few trusted sons of Columbia were 
called to formulate a protest that had already been em¬ 
phasized upon the field of battle, amid the clash of arms. 

6. At last it was finished, that immortal docu¬ 

ment, and forth, over the heads of waiting thousands, 
rang in clarion tones, the challenge to tyranny. The 
sword was clasped still tighter; the sturdy farm boy 
shouldered his musket, and, with his mother’s “God 
bless you,” went forth to fight for that young land 
that is now become the colossus of nations. All 
classes, all elements were united then. No one asked 
from what land those defenders came. It mattered not 
where their cradle had stood; whether in the vine-clad 
cottage of fair Erin, by the majestic Rhine, or amid the 
chilly northern snows. Shoulder touched shoulder, 
heart beat to heart, and the mighty spirit of rebellion 
against the blackest tyranny that ever cursed humanity, 
rose like the restless tide of a mighty river, and swept 
onward in its furious course. 



Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


151 


7. Years of cruel war followed. Devastated fields, 
deserted homes, cities and hamlets burned and pillaged 
and every cruelty that insatiable fury and barbarism 
could devise was wreaked upon the American army. 
No tongue can fittingly portray one-half the horrors of 
that cruel, relentless war. Five weary, bloody, cruel 
years—years in which the brightest and most glowing 
pages of the world’s history were written in the tears 
and blood of a gallant, dauntless people. That heroic 
Frenchman, LaFayette, bared his gleaming blade, and 
beside the peerless Washington, pledged his young life 
and honor to the cause of American freedom. From far 
lands came the stranger to fight under the banner of 
Washington, and mingle his blood with the crimson tide 
poured out so freely in the glorious cause of American 
Independence. 

8. At last the Britain was humbled, his red-cross 
banner, trailed between the lines of American bayonets, 
was lowered in disaster and defeat at Yorktown, and 
the legions of King George, chagrined, humbled, crush¬ 
ed and disheartened, who had come to drench this land 
in blood, to tighten the fetters already forged, surren¬ 
dered forever their claim of dominion in this western 
world. How the people rejoiced, when the last red 
coat had left our shores! How the bells tolled and the 
cannon roared! . . . . True, there were deserted fire¬ 
sides and vacant chairs; mothers and sisters were 
weeping, even amidst the nation’s joy. . . . But the 
blood that dyed their meadows, had sanctified the land 
and consecrated it in the name of Liberty, to coming 
generations. Tyranny was dead. Henceforth no ser¬ 
vile horde would ever dare to invade the land where a new 
standard had been planted, a new republic built upon the 
decaying ashes of a vanished empire. . . . 



1*9 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


9. Long years of peace and prosperity followed. 
But, when the sky was brightest; when a great nation 
slumbered in security, forgetful of danger, up from our 
beautiful South the war drums sound their dreadful 
warning; she has forgotten Lexington, Bunker Hill, and 
Yorktown; Columbia’s sons are divided! Under the 
southern palmetto and the northern pine, men are 
arming now. . . . Four years of awful conflict. 
Brother lifted sword against brother; each espousing 
the cause he thought just. It was “Greek meet Greek.” 
Liberty’s proud temple so nobly erected in the past, was 
invaded, and the red flashes of war penetrated the proud 
citadel where Columbia sat weeping over the errors of 
her divided children. . . . 

10. At last the cruel war ended, the North stretch¬ 
ed forth her hand to the South; the sword was sheathed, 
and please God the day may never come again, when 
brother shall meet brother upon the field of war. But 
the veteran ranks that stood like living walls of fire to 
stay the tide of invasion . . , are thinning fast as the 
years go by, and the tramp, tramp, tramp, so firm and 
strong in ’61, halts and wavers now. A few short years, 
and the last veteran will have marched to his eternal 
bivouac, and the grand army of the Republic will live 
only in history. When they go, they give you, young 
men, that flag, and say: “Defend it as we have done; 
live for it, fight for it, die for it if necessary, but let no 
servile hand destroy or mar its folds.” 

11. “A land without ruins is a land without mem¬ 
ories, a land without memories is a land without his¬ 
tory. A land that wears a laurel crown may be fair to 
see; but twine a few sad cypress leaves around the brow 
of any land, and be that land barren, beautyless and 
bleak, it becomes lovely in its consecrated coronet of 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


158 


sorrow. Crowns of roses fade. Crowns of thorns en¬ 
dure. Calvaries and crucifixions take deepest hold of 
humanity.” .... God bless our country. God bless 
our flag which represents its power and greatness. God 
bless the loyal hearts, and strengthen the loyal hands of 
those who wave it aloft to-day, in its resplendent mag¬ 
nificence, a challenge and a menace to tyranny and op¬ 
pression. 


THE BURIAL OF MOSES. 


MRS. C. F. ALEXANDER. 

1— By Nebo’s lonely Mountain, 

On this side Jordan’s wave, 

In a vale in the land of Moab, 

There lies a lonely grave; 

But no man dug that sepulcher, 

And no man saw it e’er; 

For the angels of God upturned the sod 
And laid the dead man there. 

2— That was the grandest funeral 

That ever passed on earth; 

But no man heard the tramping, 

Or saw the train go forth. 

Noiselessly as the daylight 
Comes when the night is done, 

And the crimson streak on ocean’s cheek 
Grows into the great sun; 

3— Noiselessly as the springtime 

Her crown of verdure weaves, 

And all the trees on all the hills 
Open their thousand leaves,— 

So, without sound of music. 

Or voice of them that wept, 

Silently down from the mountain’s crown 
The great procession swept. 

4— Perchance the bald old eagle, 

On gray Beth-peor’s height, 

Out of his rocky eyrie, 

Looks on the wondrous sight; 
Perchance the lion stalking 
Still shuns that hallowed spot: 

For beast and bird have seen and heard 
That which man knoweth not. 



154 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


6—But when the warrior dieth, 

His comrades in the war, 

With arms reversed, and muffled drum, 
Follow the funeral car; 

They show the banners taken, 

They tell his battles won, 

And after him lead his masterless steed, 
While peals the minute-gun. 

6— Amid the nobles of the land 

Men lay the sage to rest, 

And give the bard an honored place, 

With costly marble dressed, 

In the great minster transept, 

Where lights like glories fall, 

And the choir sings, and the organ rings, 
Along the emblazoned wall. 

7— This was the truest warrior 

That ever buckled a sword; 

This the most gifted poet 
That ever breathed a word; 

And never earth’s philosopher 
Traced with his golden pen 
On the deathless page, truth half so sage 
As he wrote down for men. 

8— And had he not high honor? 

The hill-side for his pall; 

To lie in state while angels wait 
With stars for tapers tall; 

Ahd the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes. 

Over his bier to wave; 

And God’s own hand, in that lonely land, 

To lay him in the grave.— 

9— In that strange grave without a name, 

Whence his uncoffined clay 
Shall break again—O wondrous thought!— 
Before the judgment day, 

And stand with glory wrapped around, 

On the hills he never trod, 

And speak of the strife that won our life, 
With the incarnate son of God. 

10—O lonely grave in Moab’s land! 

O dark Beth-peor’s hill! 

Speak to these curious hearts of ours, 

And teach them to be still. 

God hath his mysteries of grace,— 

Ways that we cannot tell: 

He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep 
Of him he loved so well. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 155 

THE OLD FASHIONED SCHOOL. 

JOHN S. M’GROARTY. 

1. Perhaps there never was quite such another 
school, nor so quaint and strange a master. It seemed 
that both existed in another age than this, and yet the 
heads of those who will remember it all with the 
golden dreams of youth, are now scarce more than 
turning gray. But the master slumbers in the little 
church-yard where his footsteps had oft so reverently 
strayed in life, and the school-house is a pitiful wreck 
upon the lonely way. School and master, were each 
the last of their kind. 

2. When I last saw the village which knew the 
master and his school, my heart smote me with keenest 
pain. The lavish splendor of a harvest moon gleamed 
from a cloudless sky, and alone and lonely, I dwelt upon 
memories that swept my soul like a dream of the cradle¬ 
song my mother used to sing me—even there. Above 
me rose the shadow of the mighty mountain upon whose 
distant summit I was born. 

3. In that far time, and many, many years before, 
this had been a happy spot. Peace and plenty blest 
the place; here was the kindly word, the generous deed, 
the warm, warm heart. Now, everything so changed. 
The silence of the grave brooded above it all, no wel¬ 
come voice, no hand to greet extended. Deserted, 
wretched, lonely. All gone. Beyond the circling hills 
that rimmed the little vale, the last, heart-broken wan¬ 
derer long since had sped, leaving his heart behind him 
in the dear old place. And, stopping as he passed the 
little church-yard where all the dead in dreamless rest 
were lying, maybe he envied them that-could still remain 
forever there—there with God’s whisper in the lonely 


156 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


woods, and the sweet, sweet peace upon them evermore. 

4. Many a long day had the patient master toiled 
in that wondrous school, and often, in the passing years, 
when the sons and daughters of those who themselves 
had once been learners in that very place, bowed to his 
scepter, the winds would waft from the great big world 
beyond the circling hills, a name that fame had touched 
with something of glory and honor, and which had often 
answered his roll call in other days. “Good,” the 
master would say, his heart aglow with pride; “I laid 
the foundation for that.” Yea, gentle master, many 
a strong and sturdy life was builded on the firm founda¬ 
tion that you had made! 

5. He had crude methods, may be, and these new 
kinks in pedagogics, now-a-days, would perhaps have 
been little less of mystery to him than Egypt’s pyramids 
might be to most of us, and yet he taught that which he 
did teach, well. He wrote a hand like copper-plate and 
could do well with mathematics, and was complete mas¬ 
ter of the old-fashioned spelling book. That was about 
all; “ it was a foundation,” he w T as wont to say, and 
there are men today who have builded high thereon. 

6. His spelling class was ever the battle-ground of 
the school, and many hath its heroes been. On its 
fierce arena, what struggles there were, what glorious 
triumphs, what sore defeats! To be the head of the spel¬ 
ling class in that school was to be the palm-crowned. 
Never strove Athenian youth to gain the scholar’s scroll, 
nor Roman lad to wear the warrior’s wreath with 
braver heart or truer persistence than he who sought 
the speller’s lead in that quaint old school. “ The head 
of the class!” Ah ! what an envious place. See, when 
the hour comes, the eager look that lights up the face 
of even the dullest urchin. Lo! now shall there be a 


Gumming»' Encyclopedia. 


167 


clash of skillful brain not less exciting than the clash of 
Damascus blades. 

7. The master fills his huge old wooden pipe, and, as 
he lights it, the flame makes brighter the twinkle in his 
eye, showing his own eager anticipation. . . And so 
the battle rages with its various fortunes, its triumphs, 
its defeats, its gains and losses. The whole school 
watches with bated breath till all is over. Then those 
who have wrung glory from the fray return proudly 
with springing steps to the r places on the long benches, 
and the scarred, conquered ones, hide their faces in their 
hands upon the rough desk before them, while some¬ 
times a little sob and a tear-stained eye betrays the 
sorrow of a wounded heart. And out in the low-roofed 
cabins tonight the tale of the struggle will be told, and 
yet tomorrow night again, and so till another generation 
has taken the places of those who fought today. Such 
was the master and such the school. 

8. There was once two girls who led the spelling 
class. They each held respectively the first and second 
places in the line for many weeks. . . The news of each 
day’s results were as eagerly looked for in the little 
village, as those at home look for news from fields of 
war, but the fight went on as changeless as the rising 
sun . . But lo! there came an evil day at last: the 
leader stumbled. It was just one letter, and in the flash 
of an instant she saw her doom and made one wild 
effort to regain her lost vantage ground. Too late, too 
late! Her foeman leaped instantly into the breach, her 
lips rang out the corrected syllable and the stroke for 
which she had waited through weary weeks of patient 
watchfulness to strike, fell on her rival’s unhappy head. 

9. A thrill swept through the school, the master 
stood as rooted to the floor, and then there fell a deep 


158 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


hush upon it all. For there was cause for silence then. 
The old leader’s face had turned ghastly white, she 
tottered an instant, and before the master could catch 
her in his a f ms she had fallen to the floor. When they 
raised her the blood spouted from her nostrils and she 
seemed like one dead. The next day, although she 
suffered terribly that night, her mother could not detain 
her, and she appeared, pale and haggard, with 
deep black lines beneath her eyes, and took the second 
place in the class. 

10. The next day she was there again, and the 
next, and so the old battle went on, neither of the girls 
missing a word. The situation continued till next to 
the last day of the term had arrived, and it seemed 
beyond a doubt that the new leader would hold her 
advantage to the end and carry off the honors. One by 
one the scholars t >ok their seats, that da}’’, and at last 
the master’s rap demanded silence. The great flat book 
was opened, and the roll call begun. “ Mary MacDonald.” 
No answer. At once every eye sweeps the room. . 

11. What! the leader of the spelling class absent ? 
Now, here was a sensation. Absent, sure enough. An 
hour passed, and still she did not appear, and yet 
another hour, and the time had come f *r the spelling 
class to recite. And the old leader took her place at 
the head; her face flushed with pride, her lips quivered 
with the joy of victory regained. It was not such a 
victory as she could have best desired, but victory, nev¬ 
ertheless. For had she not fought every fate, in sick¬ 
ness and in health, to c i me every day to school? It was 
to the enduring as well as the skillful that triumph 
belonged. 

12. Yet, hold! there’s a hand on the school-house 
door, there’s a foot on the threshold. Every scholar turns, 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


159 


and then there rings to the rafters of that old school- 
house one wild, ungovernable cheer: “Mary MacDonald! 
Mary MacDonald ! And there, for an instant, like a queen 
she stood. In unkempt splendor her long hair fell about 
her shoulders, and her eyes blazed with a luster sublime. 
She strode to the head of her class, and a moment later 
her mother rushed wildly into the room. “ Where 
is she, master? Where is my poor girl?” the frightened 
woman cried. “She nearly died last night, she was so 
ill, and when I went to get her a cooling drink just now, 
she ran from the house and came here. ” Of course the 
battle was pushed no farther. There was no spelling 
lesson again that term; the honors were declared equal, 
and both were victors. 

13. Many years have passed since then, but the 

memory of that famous struggle lives unforgotten. 

There are men who have since carried the flag of our 

country through scenes of carnage and death, who re- 

memb* r that moment in the old school-house with 
* 

clearer vision than they remember much that is of 
graver import. I write these recollections down, for, 
maybe, the weeds of forgetfulness might grow over 
them some day, even as the brier thorn and the wild 
flowers of the dear old churchyard in the far off hiLs 
are growing above the master’s grave. 

HISTORY OF OUR FLAG. 

The first flag was adopted by Congress June 4,1776, 
and consisted of thirteen stripes, alternate red and 
white, and thirteen stars arranged in a circle on a blue 
field. In 1794, after the admission of Vermont and 
Kentucky, an act was passed increasing the number of 
stars and stripes to fifteen. Again, in 1818, when five 


100 


Cummingi ’ JEncyclopadia. 


more States were admitted, the number of stars was in¬ 
creased to twenty and the number of stripes perma¬ 
nently fixed at thirteen. Since then an additional star 
has been added for every new State admitted. 


“ O glorious flag, red, white and blue, 

Bright emblem of the pure and true, 

O glorious group of clustering stars; 

Ye lines of light, ye crimson bars, 

Trampled in dust by traitor feet, 

Once more your flowing folds we greet, 
Triumphant over all defeat; 

Henceforth in every clime to be, 

Unfading scarf of liberty, 

The ensign of the brave and true.” 

THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER. 

FRANCIS SCOTT KEY. 

O say can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 

What so proudly we hailed at the twilights’s last gleaming? 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars thro’ the perilous 
fight, 

O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming; 
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 

Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. 
Chorus .—O say, does that star spangled banner yet wave 

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 

On the shore, dimly seen through the mist of the deep, 
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes, 
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep 
As it fitfully flows, half conceals, half discloses? 

Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam, 

In full glory reflected now shines in the stream. 

Cho .—’Tis the star spangled banner, O! long may it wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore 
That the havoc of war, and the battle’s confusion, 

A home and a country shall leave us no more! 

Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution; 

No refuge could save the hireling and slave 

From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave. 

Cho .—And the star spangled banner in triumph doth wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


161 


O thus be it ever, when free we shall stand, 

Between their lov’d home and the war’s desolation; 

Blest with vict’ry and peace, may the heaven-rescued land 
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation. 
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, 

And this be our motto, u In God is our trust.” 

Cho .~And the star spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

THE BLUE AND THE GRAY. 


FRANCIS MILES FINCH. 


1— By the flow of the inland river, 

Whence the fleets of iron have fled, 
Where the blades of the grave-grass quiver, 
Asleep are the ranks of the dead,— 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

• Under the one, the Blue: 

Under the other, the Gray. 

2— These, in the robes of glory: 

Those, in the gloom of defeat; 

All, with the battle-blood gory, 

In the dusk of eternity meet, — 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day: 

Under the laurel, the Blue: 

Lender the willow, the Gray. 

3— From the silence of sorrowful hours, 

The desolate mourners go, 

Lovingly laden with flowers, 

Alike for the friend and the foe,— 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

Under the roses, the Blue; 

Under the lilies, the Gray. 

4— So, with an equal splendor, 

The morning sun-rays fall, 

With a touch impartially tender, 

On the blossom blooming for all,— 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

Broidered with gold, the Blue; 
Mellowed with gold, the Gray. 




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Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


5— So, when the summer calleth, 

On forest and field of grain, 

With an equal murmur falleth 
The cooling drip of the rain,— 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

Wet with the rain, the Blue; 

Wet with the rain, the Gray. 

6— Badly, but not with upbraiding, 

The generous deed was done; 

In the storm of the years that are fading 
No braver battle was won,— 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

Under the blossoms, the Blue; 

Under the garlands, the Gray. 

7— No more shall the war-cry sever, 

Or the winding rivers be red; 

They banish our anger for ever, 

When they laurel the graves of our dead,— 
Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day; 

Love and tears, for the Blue; 

Tears and love, for the Gray. 


THE BELLS OF SHANDON. 

FRANCIS MAHONY. 

1— With deep affection and recollection, 

I often think of those Shandon bells 
Whose sounds so wild would, in days of childhood, 
Fling round my cradle their magic spells. 

2— On this I ponder where’er I wander, 

And thus grow fonder, sweet Cork, of thee— 

With thy bells of Shandon, that sound so grand on 
The pleasant waters of the river Lee. 

3— I’ve heard bells chiming full many a clime in, 

Toiling sublime in cathedral shrine, 

While at glib rate brass tongues would vibrate: 

But all their music spoke naught like thine; 

4— For memory, dwelling on each proud swelling 

Of thy belfry, knelling its bold notes free, 

Makes the bells of Shandon sound far more grand on 
The pleasant waters of the river Lee. 


Cummings 1 Encyclopedia. 


163 


6—I’ve heard bells tolling old Adrian’s Mole in, 

Their thunder rolling from the Vatican; 

And cymbals glorious swinging uproarious 
In the gorgeous turrets of Notre Dame; 

6— But thy sounds were sweeter than the dome of Peter 

Flings o’er the Tiber, pealing solemnly. 

O, the bells of Shandon sound far more grand on 
The pleasant waters of the river Lee. 

7— There’s a bell in Moscow, while on tower and kiosk, O! 

In St. Sophia the Turkman gets, 

And loud in air calls men to prayer, 

From the tapering summits of tall minarets. 

8— Such empty phantom I freely grant them, 

But there’s an anthem more dear to me: 

’Tis the bells of Shandon, that sound so grand on 
The pleasant waters of the river Lee. 

THE SOUTHERN CAVALIER, 

JOHN TEMPLE GRAVES. 

1. I am unable to do homage to New England 
from Plymouth Rock to Philadelphia in the full meas¬ 
ure of my admiration. We,the Cavaliers of the South,have 
adopted your conclusions; we have fairly grappled your 
views. My people once vainly eought to set aside your 
ideas, but now that the storm is over, the battle ended 
and the smoke cleared away, we see the outline of your 
convictions and give you that profound respect which 
courage always gives; since your ideas triumphed, mag¬ 
nanimity leaves you nothing but forgiveness. Since 
ours failed, it is our duty and our glory to forgive and 

t 

forget. . . . The coursing of cavalier blood awakens no 
resentment from remembrance, nor mars the past with a 
single bitter memory. 

2. So, then,though the past divided us, the southern 
point of view is not only forgiven, but forgotten in the 
new glory of to-day, and I stand to-night in sound tem¬ 
per, with unclouded retrospect, to say to the pilgrims of 


164 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


glorious New England: Thine is the inheritance of 
fame. In the history of races there is no record of 
dangers more nobly met or difficulties more grandly 
grappled or conquests more serenely won. ... I do not 
live in the Past—I am in touch and thrilling with the 
impulse of to-day. The spirit of the achievements of New 
England, ha3 spread itself to softer latitudes, and the 
grim, gray monotones of Plymouth Rock have developed 
into the young and loftier ideas of Dixie. 

3. The first Pilgrim who stepped from the May¬ 
flower’s deck, makes a grand picture as he lands upon 
the new country he had come to conquer for himself and 
liberty. No color has touched him with too rich a glow, 
and history is rich with his enduring work. Side by 
side with this result of steadfast vigor on New Eng¬ 
land’s rock-bound coast, I place the matchless pathos 
of the Confederate soldier, who had staked his fortune 
upon his convictions and walked home a thousand miles 
to find the ashes of his home strewn thick upon the gar¬ 
den of roses he had left behind. Leaning upon his mus¬ 
ket, he viewed ths desolation which spread around him 
on every side. Ruin, and disaster and destroyed hopes, 
gathered upon his horizon, and the grand army of the 
Potomac, with its batteries of cannon, never sent such 
despair into his heart as the scenes of the desolation of 
his home and country. 

4. Defeat had stripped the cavalier of his armor, 
but the spirit of the man was equal to the hour. He 
looked upon his battered gun for the last time as a 
weapon of war. The sharp lines of the bayonet were 
turned into the graceful circles of the scythe; the glis¬ 
tening barrel was moulded into the plowshare, and the 
battered stock turned into handles for the plow. With 
a new light in his eye, and a new hope in his heart, he 


Cuminings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


165 


moved through desolation to triumph, and comes to-night 
to this New England banquet to say that with the weap¬ 
ons of peace and the result of his pluck, he has won a 
greater victory than he ever won in battle by the point 
of his gleaming sword. 

5. From the valley of disaster he has climbed the 
hills of prosperity, and he now witnesses the greatest 
achievements in the history of nations in the decade 
which has just closed. . . . Sons of New England, I 
ask you if the hardy spirit that wrought this miracle is 
not worthy of your profound respect? There is not a 
tone of disloyalty in the south. This is our country. 
We look through eyes of common faith. Here then let 
us join hands. Men of the North, shall we strike this 
contract here to-night? I know that we will. All hail 
the Puritan and Cavalier in the old city of Brotherly 
Love. Sing the songs of rejoicing, boom the cannon 
and let the old bell, which at the birth of Liberty spoke 
forth in no uncertain tones, send forth the news to Eu¬ 
rope and the world, that the North and the South have 
grasped hands in eternal friendship. 

SPELLING. 

# 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Retain the final e when adding a suffix begin¬ 
ning with a consonant, except when the e is preceded 
by a vowel. Rule; pale , paleness. Exception; true 
truly. 

2. Drop the dual e when adding a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, except when adding able or ous , when the 
e is preceded by c or g. Rule; rate , ratable. Excep¬ 
tion ; peace , peaceable. 

3. The double letter is retained when the suffix 
begins with a different letter; as, see, seeing. 


166 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


4. The plural of a noun ending in y is formed by 
adding s. When the y is preceded by a consonant, ies 
is substituted to form the plural. 

5. Double the l when it is preceded by a single 
vowel; when the suffix ly is added to the final l ; when 
the syllable ending in l is accented. Words of more 
than one syllable ending in l, close with one l. 

6. Participles ending in ing, from verbs ending in e, 
drop the final e, but retain thee, when double; as, make , 
making, see, seeing. Dye, to color, retains the e; as, dye, 
dyeing. 

7. Most verbs ending in ly, and nouns ending in 
menl, retain the final e, except with the ending dge. 
Examples: Brave, bravely; refine, refinement', acknowl¬ 
edge, acknowledgment. 

8. Ei follows c soft, as receive', and ie follows 
other consonants, as believe, grieve. 


EXERCISES. 


Alike in sound, unlike in spelling and meaning. 


Abel, a name. 

Adz, a cutting tool. 

Aloud, above breath. 

Arc, part of a circle. 

Ail, ill. 

Aisle, a passageway. 

All, total. 

Altar, a communion table. 
Aunt, a parent’s sister. 
Assent, consent. 

Ate, did eat. 

Augur, a soothsayer. 
Aught, anything. 

Bail, surety. 

Bays, arms of the sea. 
Bard, a song poet. 


Able, competent. 

Adds, computes. 

Allowed, permitted. 

Ark, a floating cabin. 

Ale, fermented malt liquor. 
Isle, an island. 

Awl, a piercing tool. 

Alter, to change. 

Ant, an insect. 

Ascent, an acclivity. 

Eight, a number. 

Auger, a boring tool. 

Ought, in duty bound. 

Bale, a bundle. 

Baize, a cloth. 

Barred, shut out. 


Cu m m inc/s' Ency clop cedi a. 


167 


Bald, an absence of hair. 
Ball, a round body. 

Bare, naked. 

Baron, a rank of nobility. 
Base, mean, low. 

Bate, to diminish. 

Be, to exist. 

Bow, an instrument to shoot 
with. 

Beat, to strike. 

Beech, a wood. 

Beer, a malt liquor. 

Belle, a popular lady. 

Berry, a fruit. 

Berth, a bed. 

* Better, superior. 

Bin, a box for grain. 

Blew, did blow. 

Bolder, more bold. 

Borough, a chartered town. 

Bough, a branch of a tree. 
Boy, a youth. 

Brake, slacken the speed of. 
Bread, a food. 

Bridal, pertaining to the 
bride. 

Butt, object of ridicule. 
Collar, a neck band. 

Choose, select. 

Quire, twenty four, 

Ceiling, an inner roof. 

Cell, a prison-room. 

Seller, one who sells. 

Seed, a germ. 

Cession, giving up. 

Cause, that which produces. 


Bawled, cried out. 

Bawl, to cry. 

Bear, carry,—an animal. 
Barren, unfruitful. 

Bass, a low tone in music. 
Bait, an allurement. 

Bee, an insect. 

Beau, a lover. 

Beet, a vegetable. 

Beach, the shore. 

Bier, a hand-carriage for the 
dead. 

Bell, a hollow, sounding ves¬ 
sel. 

Bury, to entomb. 

Birth, coming into life. 
Bettor, one who bets. 

Been, a verb. 

Blue, a primary color. 
Bowlder, a large rock. 
Burrow, an underground pas¬ 
sage. 

Bow, to bend, a part of a ship. 
Buoy, to bear up. 

Break, to shatter. 

Bred, instructed, educated. 
Bridle, a restraint. 

But, except. 

Choler, rage. 

Chews, does chew. 

Choir, a band of singers. 
Sealing, closing. 

Sell, to vend. 

Cellar, an underground room. 
Cede, give up. 

Session, the sitting of an 
assembly. 

Caws, cries of a crow. 


168 


Cummings' Encyclopoedia . 


Chance, accident. 

Caster, a frame. 

Cast, to throw. 

Chased, pursued. 

Carat, four grains. 

Cymbal, a musical instru¬ 
ment. 

Chord, pertaining to music. 
Capital, excellent, a city. 
Currant, a fruit, 

Clause, part of a sentence. 
Canvas, a cloth. 

Creak, a harsh noise. 

Clime, a region. 

Cannon, a large gun. 

Cousin, a relative. 

Close, stop, terminate. 
Candid, open, fair. 

Currier, a dresser of leather. 
Coarse, not fine. 

Cain, a name. 

Council, legislative body. 
Coffer, a money chest. 
Calendar, a register of time. 
Core, the inner part. 

Colonel, a military officer. 
Confidant, a friend. 

Color, tint. 

Compliment, flattery, praise. 
Day, from daylight till dark. 
Dane, a native of Denmark. 
Dyeing, coloring. 

Dear, costly, precious. 

Dire, dreadful. 

Dual, expressing the number 
two. 

Descendant, a child. 

Dust, dry, fine earth. 

Draft, a money order. 
Descend, progressing down¬ 
ward. 


Chants, sings. 

Castor, a beaver. 

Caste, a class of people. 
Chaste, pure, modest. 

Carrot, a vegetable. 

Symbol, an emblem. 

Cord, a rope. 

Capitol, legislative building. 
Current, common, general. 
Claws, bird’s feet. 

Canvass, to examine, to sift. 
Creek, a stream of water. 

% 

Climb, to mount. 

Canon, an ecclesiastical law. 
Cozen, to cheat. 

Clothes, garments. 

Candied, crusted with candy. 
Courier, a messenger. 

Course, direction. 

Cane, a stick. 

Counsel, advice. 

Cougher, one who coughs. 
Calender, a press. 

Corps, a body of troops. 
Kernel, a grain. 

Confident, positive. 

Culler, one who culls. 
Complement, the full number. 
Dey, an Algerian Governor. 
Deign, condescend. 

Dying, expiring. 

Deer, an animal. 

Dyer, one who dyes. 

Duel, combat. 

Descendent, falling. 

Dost, part of a verb. 

Draught, a large swallow. 
Dissent, disagreement. 


Cummings' JEncyclopcedia. 


169 


Discreet, prudent, wise. 
Drachm, part of an apoth¬ 
ecary’s ounce. 

Do, perform. 

Done, finished. 

Dun, to solicit. 

Dough, unbaked bread. 
Feet, plural of foot. 

Faint, complete exhaustion. 
Frays, battles. 

Find, obtained by search. 
Fate, destiny. 

Franc, a French coin. 

Fair, clear, beautiful. 

Fir, an evergreen tree. 

Foul, not clean. 

Flew, past of fly. 

Forth, go forth. 

Fizz, a hissing sound. 

Fort, a stronghold. 

Flea, an insect. 

Formally, ceremoniously. 
Flour, ground wheat. 

Great, important. 

Guessed, conjectured. 

Gait, manner of walking. 
Grease, fat. 

Gored, pierced. 

Gamble, to play for money. 
Groan, a cry of pain. 

Gild, overlay with gold. 
Gilt, surfaced with gold. 
Grocer, a dealer in groceries. 
Glacier, an ice field. 

Hail, frozen rain. 

Hour, sixty minutes. 

Hear, to perceive by ear. 
Hair, a growth on the skin. 
Hole, a hollow. 


Discrete, separate. 

Dram, a glass of liquor. 

Dew, moisture. 

Due, the amount owing. 
Dunn, a name. 

Doe, a female deer. 

Feat, an exploit. 

Feint, pretend. 

Phrase, an expression. 

Fined, punished. 

Fete, a feast. 

Frank, a name. 

Fare, price of passage. 

Fur, soft hair. 

Fowl, a domestic bird. 

Flue, pipe. 

Fourth, next after third. 

Phiz, the face. 

Forte, that in which one ex¬ 
cels. 

Flee, fly. 

Formerly, in time past. 
Flower, a blossom. 

Grate, part of a stove. 

Guest, one entertained. 

Gate, a passage. 

Greece, a nation of Europe. 
Gourd, a plant. 

Gambol, to skip and play. 
Grown, increased in size. 
Guild, an association. 

Guilt, sin. 

Grosser, more gross. 

Glazier, one who glazes. 

Plale, hearty. 

Our, belonging to us. 

Here, in this place. 

Hare, an animal. 

Whole, the total. 


170 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Higher, more high. 

Hose, stockings. 

Hide, conceal. 

Hall, a large room. 

Hue, color. 

Heard, did hear. 

Hart, a stag. 

Heel, part of the foot. 

Him, the objective of he. 
Hoard, stored up. 

In, within. 

Indict, to accuse. 
Impassable, not to be passed. 

Intense, extreme. 

Invade, assail. 

Jamb, part of a door. 

Kill, to take life. 

Key, that which fastens. 
Knead, to press. 

No, the negative. 

Knew, did know. 

Night, time of darkness. 
Lead, a metal. 

Leek, a plant. 

Lax, loose. 

Leaf, anything foliated. 
Loan, lent. 

Lean, not fat. 

Lock, part of a door. 

Low, base, humble. 

Leased, did lease. 

Lie, an untruth. 

Lesson, a task. 

Levee, a bank of earth. 

Liar, an untruthful person. 
Links, joints. 

Made, did make. 

Mean, contemptible. 

More, in greater quantity. 


Hire, recompense. 

Hoes, the plural of hoe. 

Hied, hastened. 

Haul, pull. 

Hew, to cut. 

Herd, a drove. 

Heart, the main blood vessel. 
Heal, to cure. 

Hymn, a song of praise. 
Horde, a clan. 

Inn, a tavern. 

Indite, to compose. 
Impassible, incapable of suf¬ 
fering. 

Intents, designs. 

Inveighed, uttered censure. 
Jam, preserved fruit. 

Kiln, an oven. 

Quay, a wharf. 

Need, to Avan t. 

Know, knowledge of. 

New, not old. 

Knight, a warrior. 

Led, did lead. 

L^ak, a small drain. 

Lacks, wants. 

Lief, willing. 

Lone, alone. 

Lien, a legal claim. 

Loch, a Scotch lake. 

Lo, behold. 

Least, smallest. 

Lye, an alkali water. 

Lessen, to make less. 

Levy, a legal writ. 

Lyre, a harp. 

Lynx, an animal. 

Maid, an unmarried woman. 
Mien, air, look, aspect. 
Mower, one who mows. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


171 


Mead, a drink. 

Mustard, a plant. 

Male, masculine. 

Medal, a token. 

Moan, to lament. 

Marten, a weasel. 

Main, the chief part. 

Martial, warlike. 

Mince, to make fine. 

Mantle, a loose garment. 
Mist, vapor. 

Manner, method. 

Might, power. 

Maize, an Indian cloth. 
Muse, to think. 

Metal, a hard substance. 
Nap, a short sleep. 

Nay, no. 

Nice, fine. 

None, not any. 

Nose, the organ of smell. 
Oar, the paddle of a boat. 
Ode, a poem. 

Won, did win. 

Pause, stop. 

Patience, resignation. 
Palate, the dust organ of the 
throat. 

Pain, suffering. 

Pale, wan. 

Paste, an adhesive mixture. 
Peace, tranquillity. 

Peak, the summit. 

Feal, loud sound. 

Presents, gifts. 

President, the presiding offi¬ 
cer. 

Principal, chief. 


Meed, reward. 

Mustered, did muster, gather. 
Mail, letters. 

Meddle, interfere. 

Mown, did mow. 

Martin, a sort of a swallow. 
Mane, the hair on a horse’s 
neck. 

Marshal, arrange. 

Mints, where money is coined. 
Mantel, a shelf. 

Missed, did miss. 

Manor, an estate. 

Mite, small. 

Maze, wonderment. 

Mews, cries of a cat. 

Mettle, courage. 

Knap, the part of a cloth. 
Neigh, a horse’s cry. 

Gneiss, a sort of granite. 

Nun, a religious woman. 
Knows, understands. 

Ore, a mineral. 

Owed, did owe. 

One, the unit. 

Paws, feet of beasts. 

Patients,the doctors’ patients. 
Pallet, a small bed. 

Pane, window glass. 

Pail, a hollow vessel. 

Paced, walked. 

Piece, a portion. 

Pique, offense. 

Peel, to strip off the bark. 
Presence, being present. 
Precedent, an example. 

Principle, pertaining to char¬ 
acter. 


172 


Cuynmings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


Pray, to implore. 

Pore, a skin-opening. 

Pole, a staff. 

Plum, a fruit. 

Plain, clear. 

Peer, an equal. 

Pec\al, a foot crank. 

Pride, self respect. 

Profit, gain. 

Rap, to strike. 

Red, a color. 

Raised, lifted up. 

Reed, a hollow stalk. 
Receipt, an acknowledgment 
Rung, as rung the bell. 

Rest, to recline, 

Ruff, a muslin collar. 

Rigor, firmness. 

Rote, a repetition. 

Ring, a circle. 

Sail, to fly. 

Sects, religious. 

Serge, a coarse cloth. 

Scull, an oar. 

Seem, appear. 

Senior, older. 

Shone, did shine. 

Size, proportion. 

Sire, father. 

Slay, kill. 

Slight, neglect. 

Sweet, not sour. 

Soar, to fly. 

Succor, help. 

Sole, the bottom of the foot. 
Strait, a neck of water. 
Some, more or less. 

Stile, a line of steps. 

Stairs, steps. 


Prey, plunder. 

Pour, to stream forth. 

Poll, pertaining to the ballot. 
Plumb, perpendicular. 

Plane, smooth. 

Pier, a supporting column. 
Peddle, to sell from house to 
house. 

Pried, moved. 

Prophet, one who predicts. 
Wrap, a cloak. 

Read, did read. 

Razed, torn down. 

Read, to read a book. 

. Re-seat, to seat over. 

Wrung, twisted. 

Wrest, to twist. 

Rough, not fine. 

Rigger, one who rigs the sails. 
Wrote, did write. 

Wring, to twist. 

Sale, the act of selling. 

Sex, the gender. 

Surge, to swell. 

Skull, the bones of the head. 
Seam, to join. 

Seignior, a lord. 

Shown, displayed. 

Sighs, does sigh. 

Sigher, one who sighs. 

Sleigh, a sled. 

Sleight, a trick. 

Suite, an apartment. 

Sore, painful. 

Sucker, a fish. 

Soul, the spirit. 

Straight, not crooked. 

Sum, the figure. 

Style, manner. 

Stares, does stare. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


173 


Steal, to rob. 

Son, the male child. 
Stationary, motionless. 
Stake, a post. 

Tare, a weed. 

Tacks, small nails. 

Team, a pair. 

Told, did tell. 

Tear, oil from the eye. 

Toe, part of the foot. 

Teas, the plural of tea. 

Tide, the ebb of the sea. 
Thee, objective of thou. 
Throne, the sovereign’s chair. 
Their, belonging to them. 
Throe, an evidence of pain. 
Vale, a valley. 

Vain, conceited. 

Venus, a placet. 

Vial, a small bottle. 

Viol, a musical instrument. 
Wade, to walk in water. 
Waist, part of the body. 
Wait, linger. 

Waive, put off. 

Way, manner. 

Ware, merchandise. 

Weak, not strong. 

Wood, timber. 

Wrapped, wound. 

Wretch, one despised. 

You, second person. 

Air, the atmosphere. 

Ere, before. 

Sear, withered. 

Cent, a coin. 

Scent, odor. 

Sight, the vision. 

Deviser, one who plans. 


Steel, refined iron. 

Sun, the orbit of light. 
Stationery, writing supplies. 
Steak, a slice of beef. 

Tear, to rend. 

Tax, a revenue. 

Teem, overflow. 

Tolled, sounded. 

Tier, a row. 

Tow, whipped flax. 

Tease, annoy. 

Tied, fastened. 

The, the article. 

Thrown, flung. 

There, in that place. 

Throw, to fling. 

Veil, a covering for the face. 
Vein, a blood vessel. 

Venous, as of the veins. 

Vile, loathesome. 

Vane, a weathercock. 
Weighed, balanced. 

Waste, squander. 

Weight, the measure of grav¬ 
ity. 

Wave, billow. 

Weigh, balance. 

Wear, to use. 

Week, seven days. 

Would, willingness. 

Rapped, struck. 

Retch, an effort to vomit. 
Yew, an evergreen tree. 

Heir, one who inherits. 

Seer, a prophet. 

Cere, to cover with wax. 

Sent, did send. 

Cite, summon, to quote. 

Site, a situation, a location. 
Devisor,one who gives by will. 


174 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Divisor, a term in arithmetic. Fane, a temple. 

Fain, willing. Feign, pretend. 

Idle, unoccupied. Idol, an image. 

Idyl, a pastoral poem. Meet, proper, come together. 

Meat, flesh. • Mete, to measure. 

Pare, to peel. Pair, a couple. 

Rain, water from the clouds. Pear, a fruit. 


Rein, a bridal strap. 
Rays, the sun’s rays. 
Road, a public highway. 
Rowed, did row. 

Scene, part of a play. 
Sees, does see. 

Seize, to grasp. 

So, in such manner. 
Shear, to cut. 

Shire, a country. 

Too, the adverb. 

Buy, to purchase. 

Bye, farewell. 

Right, not wrong. 
Wright, a mechanic. 


Reign, to rule. 

Raise, to lift. 

Raze, tear down. 
Rode, did ride. 

Seen, perceived. 
Seine, a fishing net. 
Seas, bodies of water. 
Sew, to stitch. 

Sow, to scatter seed. 
Sheer, to turn. 

To, the preposition. 
Two, twice one. 

By, near. 

Bi-, as, bi-weekly. 
Rite, a ceremony. 


Write, to write with pen . 

PRACTICAL WORDS. 


Alcohol. 

Accuracy. 

Abstinence. 

Academy. 

Advocacy. 

Accordion. 

Aggravate. 

Allegiance. 

Alleluiah. 

Advantageous. Annihilate. 

Arbitrate. 

Autocracy 

Aeronaut. 

Avaricious. 

Auxiliary. 

Abeyance. 

Aluminum. 

Achievable. 

Acquiescence. 

Balance. 

Bachelor. 

Belles-lettres. 

Baccalaureate. 

Britain. 

Back-gam¬ 

mon. 

Banana. 

Bilious. 

Beef steak. 

Baluster. 

Belligerent. 

Blaspheme. 

Botany. 

Bankruptcy. 

Business. 

Beggar. 

Baronetcy. 

Beneficence. 

Bivouac. 

Bronchitis. 

Control. 

Caitiff. 

Chicanery. 

Celery. 

Cinnamon.. 

Catarrh. 

Connecticut. 

Cochineal. 

Cathedral. 

Caterpillar. 

Cariole. 

Conspiracy. 

Covetous. 

Cavalier. 

Criticism. 

Chimerical. 

Chloroform. 

Cholera. 

Chrysanthe¬ 

mum. 

Circumference. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


175 


Dandelion. 

Daffodil. 

Dahlia. 

Defiance. 

Daily. 

Delirium. 

Deficiency. 

Diarrhoea. 

Dedicatory. 

Demurrage. 

Defeasible. 

Delicacy. 

Despicable. 

Diptheria. 

Despondency. 

Discipline. 

Dyspepsia. 

Discourtesy. 

Dissectible. 

Dysentery. 

Eligible. 

Effervescence. Exhaustible. 

Effigies. 

Ecstasy. 

Eleemosy¬ 

nary. 

Elysium. 

Encyclical. 

Epileptic. 

Enthusiasm. 

Erysipelas. 

Escutcheon. 

Fuchsia. 

Fastidious. 

Forcible. 

Flexible. 

Fibrous. 

Ferule. 

Fanaticism. 

Fluency. 

Facsimile. 

Fossil. 

Fusil. 

Frontispiece. 

Fratricide. 

Forfeiture. 

Fertilize. 

Gnarly. 

Geranium. 

Gillyflower. 

Genealogical. 

Grisly. 

Granary. 

Grenadier. 

Gubernatorial. Gutta-percha. 

Gymnasium. 

Guttural. 

Glycerine. 

Grocer. 

Hymeneal. 

Heliotrope. 

Henious. 

Honorary. 

Hallelujah. 

Homeopathic. 

Hygiene. 

Hypocracy. 

Hungrity. 

Hemorrhage. 

Hiccough. 

Hippopotamus. 

Irrigate. 

Invisible. 

Ignominy. 

Inaccuracy. 

Inadequacy. 

Isosceles. 

Juiciness. 

Jehovah. 

Jerusalem. 

Jaundice. 

Judiciary. 

Jaguar. 

Jeopardy. 

Jealous. 

Jocosely. 

Juvenescent. 

Knicknack. 

Knuckle. 

Kaleidoscope. 


Lieutenant. 

Libeling. 

Library. 

Legitimacy. 

Leniency. 

Licentious. 

Ludicrous. 

Labyrinth. 

Meerschaum. 

Measles. 

Mignonette. 

Macaroni. 

Mausoleum. 

Mischievous. 

Medicinal. 

Mileage. 

Neuralgia. 

Niagara. 

Necessary. 

Neutralize. 

Nonsense. 

Navigable. 

Nuisance. 

Nonentity. 

Obeisance. 

Obliquely. 

Obstinancy. 

Omniscient. 

Optician. 

Orang-outang. Opportunity. 

Ostracise. 

Parallel. 

Prairie. 

Pigeon. 

Pentateuch. 

Plenteous. 

Parliament. 

Pendulum. 

Perspiration. 

Pneumonia. 

Phrenologist. 

Quadrille 

Quandary. 

Querulous. 

Quiescent. 

Quintessence. 

Quizzical. 

Rheumatism. 

Reservoir. 

Restaurant. 

Religious. 

Righteous. 

Rhetorician. 

Revelancy. 

Reciprocate. 

Separate. 

Sauerkraut. 

Scissors. 

Salary. 

Secrecy. 

Sahara. 

Savagery. 

Salable. 


170 


Cumm lugs' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


Significancy. 

Tuesday. 

Technicality. 

Utopian. 

Very. 

Veterinary. 

Weevil. 

Whooping- 

cough. 


Skepticism. 

Tobacco. 

Tambourine. 

Usurpation. 

Vestige. 

Vociferous. 

Wednesday. 

Wrung. 


Stomach. 

Terrible. 

Usury. 

Unsuccessful. 

Veracity. 

Velocipede. 

Witticism. 

Whortleberry 


Synonymous. 

Tangible. 

Unscrupulous. 

Ubiquity. 

Voracity. 

Ventriloquist. 

Wainscot. 

Whiffle-tree. 


EXERCISES. 


The following letter contains one hundred and nine¬ 
ty-six words not one of which is spelled correctly. 

Buffaloe, Tusday, Febuary 1, 1898 
Honerable Wiliam Shakespear; 

Respectid deer Sur: Thee ballance off there 
balleds, scent bye Wodsworth, thee poit, recieved. 
Thyne oficous survant, inn sinimmon cloths, oleagenous 
hare, guttapurcha cheak, and rhumatic gate, brout 
Spensers Fairy Queen. Twas unnessary four thee hypo- 
crit too stock wright inn too Johns restrant, smokeing 
James’s mear-schaum. Parden chriticism off anothers 
household managment butt thee epiliptick, asmatic, nu- 
ralgic, dispeptic piptheric, hippotamus, hearld epythets 
write inn Gesslers Wifes presents. Eminant sientific 
geniouses dont due there explifsit duety, inn afording 
lucretive, nectarious possissions too sutch nefareous, 
abomnable numbskulls. 

Opportunitys seam too bee omnepresent fore thee 
goverment two seperate thee ceiling and fisherys des- 
putes advantagiously; their aught too bee know hesi- 
tency inn excepting negotations bye Grate Brittain. 

Jones’s orphand children exorcise a prononsed, un¬ 
nessary controll off there unkle. He’se bot Fredrick 
thee zulogical mengary off Wilkesbarry, their’re orango- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia, 


177 


tangs, weasils, hairs, hienas, guerrillas, lyons, jagguars, 
pigons, cannaries, patridges, pheasents. Itt contaned, 
allso mackeral, siscos, hering sammon; awl specy off 
namless annimal malculae. 

Fearful off incurring malidiction fur seaming melevo- 
lence, you’l percieve Im exseeding anxeous too melorate 
thee mellifluance of hour hithertoo exseeding grate 
frindship. Beleive mee to bee, 

Yerry Sincerly and respectfly, 

Prtnse Frances Bunyan. 


LETTER WRITING. 


DIAGRAM OF FORM OF LETTER. 


Heading and Date. 


Address. 

Salutation. 

Body of letter begins here. 
Left-hand margin. 


Paragraph. 


New Paragraph. 


Closing here. 

Signature. 


HEADING AND DATE. 

Position. The heading is on the first line at the 
center of the page. If the heading be short, as New 
















178 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


York , the date may properly follow the heading on the 
same line, in fact the date is a part of the heading. A 
very long heading may occupy more than one line. 

Items. The items are, the street and number, post- 
office box, town or city, State and nation; all of these 
may not be necessary; it is a matter for the writer to de¬ 
cide. 

Legibility. Perfect legibility is necessary in the 
heading; the correspondent may want to copy it when 
answering. Care is necessary in abbreviating the head¬ 
ing ; only well-know T n abbreviations should be used. 

ADDRESS. 

Position. Begin on the line below the heading, at 
the left margin. Like the heading, the address may oc¬ 
cupy two lines. The second line of the heading begins 
below and more to the right than the first line. The 
wording of the address of the letter and the address of 
the envelop should be identical. 

SALUTATION. 

Position. The salutation begins on the next line 
below the address, and more to the right. 

Formal. A formal salutation should always be used 
in addressing a stranger or one of very slight acquain¬ 
tance, as; Sir, Dear Sir, and Madam. 

Friendly. A friendly salutation is proper in ad¬ 
dressing those with whom you are upon terms of social 
or business friendship, as; My dear Sir, Dear Friend , 
Dear Mother, and My dear John. 

Official. Employ an official salutation only when 
addressing a person in his official capacity, as; General, 
Mr. Secretary, and Your Lordship. 

Capitalization. The adjectives of a salutation 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 179 

take capitals only as the first word, as Dear Sir, My 
dear Sir. 

BODY. 

Beginning. Begin the body of a letter on the same 
line with the salutation, or on the next line below, but 
never under the salutation. 

Paragraphing. Use as many paragraphs as there 
are distinct questions to discuss. A paragraph should 
always take a new line beginning at a point vertically 
under the beginning of the salutation. 

Margin. Keep the left margin uniform, about one 
half inch and upwards wide, according to the size of the 
sheet. A neat margin adds to the appearance of the 
letter as well as affording a space for notes. 

CLOSING. 

Position. Begin the closing on the next line below 
the body of the letter, and on a line vertically under the 
commencement of the heading. 

Manner. The language and tone of the closing 
should be consistent with the relation of the parties; 
should be similar to that of the salutation. 

Capitalization. Use a capital in the first word of 
the closing only, even if the words are inverted, as ; 
Yours respectfully, Respectfully yours, Yours sincerely, 
Sincerely yours. Yours } <kc., is improper ; abbreviations 
have no place in the closing. 

Signature. The signature should begin on the 
next line below the closing and to the right; if official, 
the title should follow the signature. 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Position. Begin the superscription on the middle 
of the envelop, and each succeeding line below and to 
the right. 


180 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Nature of Superscription. Give each one his 
proper title, hut don’t give two titles meaning the 
same thing, as; Dr. H. M. Hitter , M. D. Make the 
superscription as legible as possible; the safe delivery 
of your letter may depend upon it. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

Use capital letter. 

1— Beginning the first word of every sentence. 

2— The first word following an introductory word. 

3— The first word of a direct quotation. 

4— The first word of every line of poetry. 

2—All proper names and words derived therefrom. 

6— Names of the months and days. 

7— Titles of honor and distinction. 

8— Names personified and names of especially im¬ 
portant things, as the items in a bill of accounts. 

9— Names of religious denominations and political 
parties. 

10— All appellations of the Deity. 

11— The pronoun I and interjection O. 

12— Most scientific names and names of important 
historical events. 


ARRANGEMENT. 

1. Form a mental outline of your letter. 

2. Arrange the points of your paragraph in their 
relative order; don’t have it too long. 

3. Close the paragraph with the strongest point, 
and close the letter with the strongest paragraph. 

4. Unless you are an expert, you had better read, 
correct, and then re-write the letter; this will insure 
efficiency. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 181 

LANGUAGE—STYLE—ORTHOGRAPHY. ' 

1. Don't use slang; poor or questionable English; 
bombast or display of any kind, is an evidence of ego¬ 
tism. 

2. Avoid an unnecessary repetition of words, 
phrases or sentences. Don’t be a literary thief; if you 
quote, give the proper evidence in acknowledgement. 

3. Avoid the use of a long word, if a short one 
will do; a foreign word or phrase; obsolete words and 
expressions; a word that you do not or that your cor¬ 
respondent may not, understand. 

4. Don’t misspell a word twice, master it. 

5. Learn to spell correctly the words you use every 
day; use the shorter of two correct ways of spelling a 
word; if you don’t know how to spell a word, look it 
up; if you can’t find it, don’t use it. 

6. Don’t keep a dictionary on your table, but have 
it accessible. Don’t acquire a habit of looking up com¬ 
mon words, this begets carelessness; rather master the 
word the first time you look it up. 

7. Acquire a habit of spelling by rule; master the 
spelling of common terms that are likely to trip you up. 
A good idea is to learn to spell a new word you find in 
your general reading. 

CAUTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

• 

1. You owe it to yourself, as well as to your friend 
or others to whom you are writing, to expend care upon 
your letter, and to employ the very best English at your 
command. 

2. Supplied words or letters, erasures, cross-lines 
and blots, spoil a letter—better re-write it. 

8. A first-class letter never contains pen-flourishes. 


182 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

an undue use of the character &, and is never written 
with a pencil . 

4. A postscript is an evidence of absent-minded¬ 
ness. 

5. Weigh well what you put in writing; it may 
come up in evidence against you. 

6. Most letters should be folded from the bottom. 

7. The formalities of the salutation and closing 
are properly omitted on a postal card. A dun on a pos¬ 
tal card is illegal. 

8. Write gentlemen , not gents ; and don’t write 
when you are angry; you might say something you 
would regret. 

0. Write a strong letter of recommendation, or 
don’t write any. 

10. Don’t crowd words, paper is cheap. When 
writing for publication, use but one side of the paper; 
in charity for the type setter, write your very plainest 
hand, especially when writing proper names. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

A—A. D. (Anno Domini), in the year of our Lord. 
A. B. (Artiu, Baccalaureus) , Bachelor of Arts. Act., 
active. Acc. or acct., account. Adm., Admiral. Admr., 
administrator. Adrnx., administratrix. Agt., agent. 
A. M. ( Art mm Mag ester ), Master of Arts; (Ante Me¬ 
ridian), before noon. Am., American. Amt., amount. 
Anon., anonymous. Asst., assistant. Abp., Arch- 
Bishop. 

B—Bbl., barrel. B. C., before Christ. B. C. L., 
Bachelor of Civil Law. Bp., Bishop. Brig., brigade; 
Brigadier. B. L., Bachelor of Laws. B. D., Bachelor of 
Divinity. 

C—C. (Centum), a hundred. Co., company. C. O. 


Cummings' Bncyclopcedia. 


183 


D., collect on delivery. Ci\, credit; creditor. C. E., 
Civil Engineer. C. J., Chief Justice. Col., Colonel. 
Coll., college; collector. Cts., cents. Cwc., or cwt., 
hundred weight. 

D—D. C., District of Columbia. D. D. ( Divini- 
tatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. Dec., December. 
Del., Delaware; delegate. Do., (Ditto), the same. 
Doz., dozen. Dr., Doctor; debtor. D. V. ( Deo Volen- 
te), God willing. 

E—Ed., Editor, e. g. (exempli gratia), for exam¬ 
ple. Esq., Esquire. et. al. (et alibi), elsewhere; (et 
alice or et alii), and others. Etc., etc., or &c. (et ccet- 
eri), and others; and so forth. Ex., example. 

F—F., or Fahr., Fahrenheit. Feb., February. Fur., 
furlong. 

G, H, I, J, K, L—Gal., gallon. Gen., Genesis; 
General. Gov., Governor. Gr., Greek; gross. H. or 
h., hour. Hhd., orhhd., hogshead. Hon., Honorable. 
Id. (Idem), the same. I. e., or i. e. (Id est), that is. 

I. H. S. (Iesus Ilominum Salvator), Jesus, Savior of 
Men. incog, (incognito), unknown, inst., this month; 
instant, i. q. (idem quod), tl'e same. Jan., January. 

J. P., Justice of the Peace. Jun., Jr., Junior. Lb. or 
lb., pound. Lieut., Lieutenant. L. L. B. (Legum Bac- 
calaureus ), Bachelor of Laws. L/L. D. (Legum Doc¬ 
tor), Doctor of Laws. 

M, N, 0—M., thousand; noon. M. A., Master of 
Arts. M. C., Member of Congress. M. D., Medical 
Doctor. Mdlle., Mademoiselle. Messrs., Gentlemen; 
Sirs. Mine., Madame. Mons;, or M., Monsieur. M. 
P., Member of Parliament. Mos., or mos., Months. Mr., 
Master or Mister. Mrs., Mistress or Misses. MSS., 
manuscripts. MS., manuscript. N. B. (Nota Bene), 


184 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


take notice. N. E., north-east. No., or no., number. 
Or., Oregon. Oct., October. Oz., ounce. 

P, Q, R, S, T—Pd., paid. Per., by the hand of. 
Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. P. M., Postmaster. P. 
0., Postoffice. pp., pages. Pph. or pph., pamphlet. 
Pres., President. Prof., Professor. Pro tern., or pro 
tem. ( Protempore ), for the time being. Prox. ( Proxi¬ 
mo ), next. P. S. (Posts Or ip turn), postscript. Pt., 
pint. Pwt., pennyweight. Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. 
Sec., Secretary. St., Saint or Strait. Supt., Superin¬ 
tendent. Sept., September. Thurs., Thursday. Tu. or 
Tues., Tuesday. 

U, V, W, X, Y, Z—Ult., or ult. (Ultimo), of the 
last month. U. S., United States. Vid., or vid., See. 
Vol., or vol., volume. Ys. ( Versus) against. V. n., or 
v. n., verb neuter. Viz., or viz. ( Vide licet), namely; to 
wit. Wt., or wt., weight. X., or Xt., Christ. Xmas., 
Christmas. Yd., or yd., yard. 


LETTERS. 


BUSINESS LETTER. 

Williamsport, Pa., July 12, 1897. 

Mr. John J. Ingiiam, 

Chicago, III., 

Dear Sir :— 

We note carefully what 
you say in your letter to us of the first inst. Please 
send us, via. P. R. R., at your earliest convenience, 
your number one high-grade engine, with full equip¬ 
ments. After notice from us that the machine has 
arrived, and is satisfactory, you may draw on us at the 
Merchants’ National Bank, this city. 

Yours truly, 

Chas. J. Mansuy. 

letter of introduction. 

* Bodines, Pa., Dec. 24, 1897. 

My Dear Sir :— 

Permit me to introduce to you 
my very dear friend, the Rev. P. J. Golden, of Williams¬ 
port, Pa. Any courtesy you may extend to him, during 
his stay in Rome, I shall esteem a personal favor to me. 

Very sincerely, 

R. C. Brown. 

A LETTER FOR EXERCISE. 

Mr. “dik lupe” has written the following letter in 
which his fondness for using punctuation marks and 
capital letters, and for giving advice not pertinent to 

185 


186 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


the issue, together with certain other errors, that the 
careful student will detect, may damage his chances to 
secure the appointment as Postmaster at Williamsport, 
not Pennsylvania. 

The letter contains just 200 errors in letter-writing, 
and the student will kindly re-state the letter in correct 
form : 


willimsport: pa, Janwary seckend: 

1898, 

Mr, mCkinly: i set, myself, downe to rite too? 
Yu too. tell yu, i Wus A runnin, fur a candidate, fur 
Thee postofis hear, i, Am agin fre cilvr; i Votid fur 
You! i wont it? i Am fur the Forsts, and as four con- 
gris, i Think a law shud Bee past too protecht them, 
cause they sune Bee All Gon: i Think haw waye 
Shudnt oter Bee Anext, now how? Butt kube, im fur 
hur and you, and you ot too fre him. bout the ceils! 
they shud. never, Bee prohibilid, That drayfuss will 
make a file in brasil; If haity dont let king william Bee. 
i, herin a mighty lot abut tom reed speaken? hant you 
got no other feller who can speak—j-im fur inter-nashunill 
wheat, and you, no If we had that kind muny weneverd 
Bee throne out of wurk by that Horid sixteen two* won, 
i cant think on no more to rite ! So rite sune : and give, 
me! the posish? 

your, True Frind? 


i < 


* > 


DTK LUPE. 


LITERATURE. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. 

ENGLISH. 

ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD—TRANSITION PERIOD. 

Anglo-Saxon Period. The best works of the 
Anglo-Saxon period (500 to 1,066) were King Alfred’s 
Translations. 

The Transition Period. (1,066 to 1,350) saw the 
fusion of the Anglo-Saxon and Norman languages. 

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD (1350-1564). 

Chaucer—More. 

Geoffrey Chaucer. 

Chaucer was born, of supposedly wealthy parents, 
about 1328. He received a liberal education; had a 
varied career from prison cell to the honors of a Crown 
appointment, and died 1400. Canterbury Tales , Court 
of Love , Assembly of Fowls and Legend of Goode 
Women , are among his best works. 

Extracts. 

Truth is the highest thing a man may keep. 

Canterbury Talcs. 

Sir Thomas More. 

More was born 1480; he received a good education, 
entered the law, and rose to the high post of Lord 
Chancellor of England. He was a consistent Catholic 

187 


188 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


and firmly opposed the marriage of Henry VIII to Anne 
Boleyn. For this he was beheaded, 1535. Sir Thomas 
More was the greatest orator of his day. His greatest 
works are his Life of Edward V., Utopia, and his 
Orations. 

OTHER WRITERS. 

William Langland (1324-1384). Piers Ploughman. 
.John Mandeville (1300-13*72). Book of Travels. Wil¬ 
liam Caxton (1412-1492). First Printing Press. 

SHAKESPEARIAN PERIOD (1564-1660). 

Spencer— Bacon—Jonson—Milton—others. 

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. 

The world’s greatest genius in the field of Litera¬ 
ture and Drama, William Shakesphere, was born at 
Stratford-on-Avon, 1564. On reaching manhood he 
went to London, where he became a dramatic author 
and actor. After winning a fortune that was ample, 
and a fame that seems eternal, he retired to Stratford, 
where he died, 1660. 

HIS WORKS. 

Tragedy — Comedy. 

His tragedies are Hamlet , Macbeth, Othello and 
King Lear. 

His comedies are Merchant of Venice, As You Like 
It, and Midsummer Night's Dream. 

Historical works from his pen are Julius Cesar, 
King Henry TV, King Henry V, and Richard ITT. 

EXTRACTS. 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be; 

For loan oft loses both itself and friend, 

And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

— Hamlet. 


Cummings ’ Fncyctopcedia. 


189 


Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

—A s You Like It. 


This above all—to thine own self be true, 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

— Hamlet. 


The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 

Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; 

And, as imagination bodies forth 

The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen 

Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing 

A local habitation and a name. 

—Midsummer Night's Dream. 

EDMUND SPENCER. 

Spencer was born in London, 1553. He received 
from the Crown a grant of land in Ireland, upon which 
he resided for a time but was driven from Ireland, and 
died in London in 1599. The Feerie Queene is his great¬ 
est work. 

EXTRACT. 

Oh, how can beauty master the most strong, 

And simple truth subdue avenging wrong! 

—Feerie Queene. 


LORD FRANCIS BACON. 

Lord Bacon was born in 1561. He entered the law, 
and rose to Lord Chancellor of England. Bacon fell 
from grace in public office, and died in 1626. He was 
the father of Inductive Philosophy. The Novum Orga- 
num (the new organ) was his most profound work; his 
essays were more popular. 

EXTRACTS. 

Knowledge is power. 

No pleasure is comparable to the standing on the van* 
tage-ground of truth. 





190 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


A little philosophy inclineth a man’s mind to atheism, 
but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to re¬ 
ligion. 

JOHN MILTON. 

Milton was born in 1608, and died 1674. He was 
distinguished both as a poet and a writer of prose. Par¬ 
adise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Ilymn to the Nativ¬ 
ity, are among his best works. 

EXTRACT. 

Accuse not Nature, she hath done her part, 

Do thou but thine. 

—Paradise Lost. 

BEN JONSON. 

Jonson was born in 1578, and died 1637. He sur¬ 
passed Shakespeare in learning and came next to him in 
genius. Like Shakespeare, he began life as an actor. 
Every Man in his Humor, was his best work. 


BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. 

Francis Beaumont (1586-1616) and John Fletcher 
(1576-1625). These two cultured men wrote drama in 
company. They produced some fifty excellent works, 
the best of which are, Rule a Wife and Have a Wife , 
and the Scornful Lady. 

extract. 

t 

Man is his own star, and the soul that can 
Render an honest and a perfect man, 

Commands all light, all influence, all fate; 

Nothing to him comes early or too late; 

Our acts our angels are, or good or ill. 

Our fatal shadows that walk by us still. 

—Beaumont and Fletcher. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 191 

CLASSICAL AGE. 

Walton—Butler—Bunt an—Dryden. 

1ZAAK WALTON. 

Izaak Walton was born in 1593, and died 1683. His 
fame rests on his story of the true fisherman, The Com¬ 
plete Angler. 

SAMUEL BUTLER. 

Samuel Butler was born in 1612, and died in 1680. 
His Hudihras , a scathing satire on Cromwell’s Repub¬ 
licanism, brought him fame but not fortune, and he died 
in utter poverty. 

* JOHN BUNYAN. 

John Bunyan was born in 1612, and died in 1688. 
His religious allegory, Pilgrim's Progress, is familiar to 
every school boy. 

EXTRACT. 

He that forgets his friend is ungrateful to him; but he 
that forgets his Savior, is unmerciful to himself. 

JOHN DRYDEN. 

John Dryden, the greatest poet of his time, was 
born in 1631, and died in 1700. The greatest of his 
works are; The Indian Emperor , a drama; Alexander's 
Feast , a poem, and The Hind and the Panther , a poem 
in defense of the Catholic Church. 

EXTRACTS. 

Little souls on little shifts rely. 

But Shakespeare’s magic could not copied be; 

Within that circle none durst walk but he. 


For friendship, of itself a holy tie, 
Is made more sacred by adversity. 




19 2 


Cvmmings' Encyclopaedia. 


OTHER WRITERS. 

John Locke (1632-1704). Locke was an essayist and 
a philosopher of great ability. His best known philo¬ 
sophical work is his Essay on Human Understanding . 

Sir Isaac Newton. (1642-1727). Newton was the 
greatest mathematician of the age. He is the author of 
the Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematical and 
a treatise on Optics, purely scientific works. 

FIRST HALF OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Pope—Addison—Goldsmith—Gray—Burns—Johnson 

—Burke. 

Alexander Pope. 

Alexander Pope, the worthy successor of Dryden, 
in the realm of poetry, was born 1688, and died 1744. 
Physically he was a sickly, deformed dwarf, but men¬ 
tally, a stalwart giant. Among the most renowned of 
his many excellent works, may be mentioned his Essay 
on Criticism , Essay on Man , The Pape of the Lock , 
The Dunciad , and his Translation of Homer. 

EXTRACTS. 

Charms strike the sight, but merit wins the soul. 

—Essay on Man. 

To err is human; to forgive, divine. 

—Essay on Criticism. 

Know, then, thyself; presume not God to scan; 

The proper study of mankind is man. 

—Essay on Man. 

Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 

As, to be hated, needs but to be seen; 

Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 

We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 

—Essay on Man. 





Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. J 98 

Joseph Addison. 

Joseph Addison was born 1672, and died 1719. 
The Tragedy of Cato, won for him poetic fame. His 
papers, contributed to The Tattler, The Spectator, and 
The Guardian, are literary gems. 

EXTRACTS. 

The soul, secured in her existence, smiles 
At the drawn dagger, and defies its point; 

The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 
Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years. 

But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, 

Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 

The wrecks of matter, and the crush of worlds. 

— Cato. 

Oliver Goldsmith. 

Oliver Goldsmith, the great Irish poet, was born 
1728, and died 1774. He was an historian and miscel¬ 
laneous -writer, as well as a poet. Goldsmith’6 life was 
indeed a checkered one; now riding on the flood tide of 
fame and f rtune, and again struggling with utter pov¬ 
erty. The Traveller, and The Deserted Village, are his 
leading poems. The Vicar of Wakefield (a novel), 
She stoops to Conquer (a comedy), and his History of 
England, History of Rome, and History of Greece, are 
all living works of genius. 

■* 4 

EXTRACTS. 

Man wants but little here below, 

Nor wants that little long. 

— The Hermit. 


For just experience tells, in every soil, 

That those that think must govern those that toil. 

—The Traveller. 


To me more dear, congenial to my heart, 

One native charm than all the gloss of Art. 

—The Deserted Village. 




164 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


Such is the patriot’s boast, where’er he roam, 

His first, best country ever is at home. 

—The Traveller. 

Thomas Gray. 

Thomas Gray was born 1716, and died 1771. Being 
a literary recluse, he became one of the most learned of 
his time. His Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 
recommends itself. Ode to Eton College , Ode to Adver¬ 
sity , The Bard , and Progress of Poesy , are among his 
best works. 

EXTRACTS. 

Full many a gem of purest rays serene 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

—Elegy. 


Where ignorance is bliss, ’tis folly to be wise. 

Robert Burns. 

Robert Burns, the “Ayrshire Plowman,” was born 
1759, and died 1796. His songs, Highland Mary , 
Bonny Doon, and Auld Jjang Syne, and his other poems, 
Tam, O’ Shanter, Twa Dogs, To a Mouse, To a Mountain 
Daisy , and Man was made to Mourn, show him to be the 
true child of nature. 

EXTRACTS. 

But pleasures are like poppies spread—, 

You seize the flower, its bloom is shed; 

Or like the snow-fall in the river, 

A moment white, then melts forever. 

— Tam O' 1 Shanter. 


Oh, wad some power the gif tie gie us 
To see oursels as ithers see us! 

It wad frae monie a blunder free us 
And foolish notion. 


—To a Louse. 




195 


Cummings 1 Encyclopedia. 

Samuel Johnson. 

Samuel Johnson was born 1709, and died 1784. 
His best poems are, London, The Vanity of Human 
Wishes , and Irene; his prose works are, Lives of the 
Poets , and an English Dictionary. 

Edmund Burke. 

Edmund Burke was the greatest orator of his day. 
He was born 1730, and died 1797. An Essay on the 
Sublime and Beautiful, and his world-famed speech on 
the impeachment of Warren Hastings, take high rank 
in literature. 

EXTRACTS. 

Early and provident fear is the mother of safety. 

To read without reflecting is like eating without digesting. 

OTHER WRITERS. 

James Thomson (1700-1748). The Seasons , and The 
Castle of Indolence , are popular productions from his pen. 

William Collins (1720-1757). Ode to the Passions, 
and How Sleep) the Brave, are fine tyric poems from his * 
pen. 

Sir Richard Steele (1675-1729). Steele was a 
poet of considerable note, but was celebrated for his 
political contributions to Addison’s Spectator and Tatler. 
He wrote some beautiful hymns. 

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745). The two productions 
for which Swift was noted were, Gulliver s Travels, and 
The Tale of a Tub. Verses on My Own Death, are 
likely to remain popular. 

Daniel Defoe (1661-1773). He w T as the author of 
that quaint but popular tale, Robinson Crusoe. 

William Cowper (1731-1800). The Task, Lines on 



m 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia , 


My Mother's Picture, and John Gilpin, are poems that 
display rare ability. 

Henry Fielding (1707-1755). Tom Jones, is his 
most popular work. 

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768). He was the author 
of Sentimental Journey, and Tristram Shandy. 

Hannah More (1715-1833). She was the author of 
The Inflexible Captive , drama, and The Shepherd of 
Salisbury Plain , a tale. 

HISTORIANS. 

Hume—Robertson—Gibbon. 

David Hume (1711-1776) He was the author of a 
treatise on Human Nature, and a History of England. 

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794). Gibbon’s one popu¬ 
lar work is The History of the Decline and Fall of the 
B man Empire. 

William Robertson (1721-1793) was the author of 
a History of Scotland. 

AGE OF ROMANCE (1788-1830). 

Lord Byron. 

George Gordon Noel Byron, was born in London in 
1788, and died in the Greek service, 1824. His was a 
stormy life; domestic troubles drove him from England, 
and the remaining years of his short life were spent in 
wild dissipation on the Continent. His genius was of a 
high order, but the fancied or real woes of Lord Byron 
may be seen between the lines of his best works. Childe 
Harold , The Dream , The Prisoner of Chilian , Don Juan, 
and the Siege of Corinth , are some of his best poems. 
Cain,Manfred and Marino Faliero , are efforts that dis¬ 
play rare dramatic genius. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


107 


EXTRACTS. 

Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. 


The drying up a single tear has more 
Of honest fame than shedding seas of gore. 

—Childe Harold. 


All who joy would win, 

Must share it; Happiness was born a twin. 

Thomas Moore. 

Thomas Moore was born in Dublin in 1779, and died 
1852. The avenues to fame, fortune and success, were 
to a great degree, barred to this brilliant genius, by the 
insane anti-Catholic laws of the times. Nothing 
daunted, with true Irish pluck, he surmounted all 
obstacles and won the admiration and esteem of all 
England. His best poetical works are Lalla Rookh, a 
tale of the Orient. The Irish Melodies, among which 
are his Last Rose of Summer, and Those Evening Bells , 
are works of poetic worth. The Fudge Family in Paris , 
and the biographies of Byron, Sheridan, and Lord Ed¬ 
ward Fitzgerald , are prose works of great merit. 

EXTRACTS. 

Let Fate do her worst, there are relics of joy. 

Bright dreams of the past, which she cannot destroy. 
They come in the night-time of sorrow and care, 

And bring back the features that joy used to v r ear. 
Long, long be my heart with such memories filled, 
Like the vase in which roses have once been distilled; 
You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will, 
But the scent of the roses will cling round it still. 

— Farewell! but whenever , etc. 


Oh! breathe not his name, let it sleep in the shade 
Where cold and unhonored his relics are laid: 

Sad, silent, and dark be the tears that we shed, 

As the night-dew that falls on the grass o’er his head. 

—Lines on Robert Emmet. 





198 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Earth has no sorrow that heaven cannot heal. 

—Ihe Mercy Seat. 


Oh! ever thus from childhood’s hour, 

I’ve seen my fondest hopes decay: 

I never loved a tree or flower, 

But ’twas the first to fade away. 

Percy B. Shelley. 

Percy B. Shelley was born 1792, and died 1822. He 
wrote several powerful dramas, and many poems of 
striking beauty, among which are, The Skylark , The 
Sensitive Plant , and The Cloud. 

EXTRACT. 

Teach me half the gladness 
That thy brain must know, 

Such harmonious madness 
From my lips would flow, 

The world should listen then, as I am listening now. 

—The Skylark. 

John Keats. 

John Keats, whose early death cut short a career of 
great promise, was born in 1795, and died 1821. His 
principal poems are Endymion , Hyperion , The Eve of 
St. Agnes , and Ode to a Nightingale. 

EXTRACTS. 

A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

— Endymion. 


The poetry of earth is never dead. 

— Endymion. 

Thomas Campbell. 

Thomas Campbell was born 1774, and died 1844. 
Campbell won great distinction as a po^t. The Pleas¬ 
ures of Hope. Gertrude of Wyoming , Lochiel's Warning , 




Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 190 

and Hohenlinden, are well-known and popular poems 
from his pen. 

’Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 

And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 

—Pleasures of Hope. 


To live in hearts we leave behind, 
Is not to die. 


’Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, 
And coming events cast their shadows before. 

Thomas Hood. 

Thomas Hood, a wit, humorist and poet, was born 
1798, and died 1845. The Death Bed, Song of the Shirt, 
and the Bridge of Sighs, are among his best works. 

James Sheridan Knowles. 

Knowles was born 1784, and died 1862. He won 
fame as a dramatist in his Virginias, The Wife, The 
Hunchback, and William Tell. 

* Sir Walter Scott. 

Sir Walter Scott, Scotland’s great poet and novel¬ 
ist, was born 1771, and died 1832. His brilliant pen 
won for him a great fortune, which was lost and won 
again. His Lay of the Last Minstrel, Lady of the Lake, 
and Marmion, show the ability of their author; but 
his genius shines forth even more strikingly in his 
novels. Among the most popular of his novels may be 
mentioned Guy Mannering, Old Mortality, Heart of Mid- 
Lothian, Legend of Montrose, Ivanhoe and Kenilworth 
(Waverly Novels). He also wrote The Life of Napoleon, 
and a History of Scotland. 




200 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

EXTRACTS. 

Oh, many a shaft at random sent, 

Finds mark the archer little meant; 

And many a word at random spoken, 

May sooth or wound a heart that’s broken. 

—Lord of the Isles. 


In peace, Love tunes the shepherd’s reed; 

In war, he mounts the warrior’s steed; 

In halls,in gay attire is seen; 

In hamlets, dances on the green. 

Love rules the court, the camp, the grove, 

And men below, and gods above; 

For love is heaven, and heaven is love, 

—Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

LAKE SCHOOL. 

Wordsworth—Coleridge—Southey. 

Wordsworth. 

William Wordsworth, chief of the “Lake School,” 
was born 1770, and died in 1850. The “Lake Poets” was 
a term given to that literary trio because of their resi¬ 
dence at the quiet little village of Grasmere, in the lake 
district of England. Wordsworth’s best poems are, 
Ode on Immortality , We are Seven , Ode to Duty } and 
The Rainbow. 

EXTRACT. 

The child is father of the man, 

And I could wish my days to be 
Bound each to each by natural piety. 

— The Rainbow. 

Coleridge. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, second of the Lake Poets, 
was born 1772, and died 1834. His greatest poem is 
The Ancient Mariner ; his best prose works, Lectures on 
Shakespeare , Lay Sermons and Table Talk. 



Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 201 

Southey. 

Robert Southey, the last of the trio of Lake Poets, 
was born 1774, and died 1843. Southey excelled in 
prose, and his Life of Nelson, Life of Cowper , and Life 
of Wesley , are his leading works. 

VICTORIAN AGE. (1830—1898). 

Tennyson. 

Alfred Tennyson was born 1810, and died 1892. At 
the time of his death he was Poet Laureate of England. 
Tennyson’s best poems are The May Queen , Ijocksley 
Hall , The Princess , In Memoriam , Enoch Arden , and 
The Idyls of the King. 

EXTRACTS. 

I sometimes hold it half a sin 
To put in words the grief I feel. 

For words, like nature, half reveal 
And half conceal the soul within. 

—In Memoriam. 


Aristocrat, autocrat, democrat—one 
Who can rule, and dare not lie. 

— Maud. 

The Brownings. 

Elizabeth Barrett, was born 1809, and died in 
Italy, 1861. She married Robert Browning, the poet. 
Her best poems are, A Child Asleep , Aurora Leigh , and 
He Giveth His Beloved Sleep , together with her Son¬ 
nets. 

Robert Browning was born 1812, and died 1897. 
Although a poet he excelled in drama; A Blot on the 
Scutcheon , and The Ring and the Book , being his best 
dramatic efforts. 



202 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 
Ingelow. 


Jean Ingelow was born 1830, and died July 19, 1897. 
She had a high poetic genius and took first rank among 
the many able female poets of this, ‘ the wee dawn of 
the twentieth century.” High Tide on the Coast of 
Lincolnshire , Songs of Seven , Songs of the Night 
Watches , and Off the Skelligs , are among her best pro¬ 
ductions. 

EXTRACT. 


Man dwells apart, though not alone, 

He walks among his peers unread; 

The best of thoughts which he hath known, 

For lack of listeners are not said, 

—Afternoon at a Parsonage. 

Proctor. 

Adelaide Ann Procter, whose real name was Corn¬ 
wall, daughter of Barry Cornwall, a man himself dis¬ 
tinguished in literature, was born in London, 1825, and 
died 1864. Of her, Dickens says : “She was a friend 
who inspired the strongest attachments; she was a 
firmly sympathetic woman, with a great accordant 
heart and sternly noble nature.” Of her many sweet 
poems we may mention, The A ngel's Story , A Legend of 
Provence , The Names of our Lady , and A Legend of 
Bregenz. 

EXTRACTS. 


Hours are golden links, God’s tokens, 

Reaching heav< n; but one by one 
Take them, lest the chain be broken 
Ere the pilgrimage be done. 

— One by One . 


O, what were life, if life were all? Thine eyes 
Are blinded by their tears, or thou wouldst see 
Thy treasures wait thee in the far-off skies, 

And Death, thy friend, will give them all to thee. 

—The Angel of Death. 



Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 303 

Meredith. 

Owen Meredith, Lord Lytton, son of Lord Edward 
Bulwer Lytton, was born 1831, and died 1891. Lucille ‘ 
is his best production. 

PROSE WRITERS. 

Macaulay—Dickens—Thackeray— Lytton—Carlyle . 

Macaulay. 

Thomas Babington Macaulay, England’s greatest 
historian, was born 1800, and died 1859. Lays of An¬ 
cient Rome , and his History of England , are his best 
works. 

Dickens. 

Charles Dickens, one of the world’s greatest novel¬ 
ists, was born in 1812, and died 1870. Dickens cham¬ 
pioned the cause of the young, the lowly and the op¬ 
pressed, and the wealth of genius with which nature 
endowed him, admirably fi ted him for the task. His 
leading novels are, Nicholas Nickleby, David Copper- 
field, Dombey and Son, Pickwick Papers, Our Mutual 
Friend, Old Curiosity Shop, and Great Expectations. 
Among the other prose works are his Child's History of 
England, and Christmas Stories. 

% • 

EXTRACTS. 

When death strikes down the innocent and young, for 
every fragile form from which he sets the parting spirit 
free, a hundred virtues rise, in shapes of mercy, charity, 
and love, to walk the world and bless it. 


I love these little people; and it is not a slight thing 
when they, who are so fresh from God, love us. 



204 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Thackeray. 

William Makepeace Thackeray, easily the peer of 
Dickens in the realm of romantic literature, was born 
1811, and died 1863. Among his many meritorious 
works may be mentioned, Vanity Fair, Pendennis, Hen¬ 
ry Esmond , The Virginians , (sequel to Henry Esmond), 
and The Hewcomes. His course of lectures on The Four 
Georges and the English Humorists stamp him as a critic 
of rare ability. 

EXTRACTS. 

If fun is good, truth is better, and love is best of all. 


Might I give counsel to any young heart, I would say 
to him, try to frequent the company of your betters. 

Lytton. 

Sir Edward George Bulwer Lytton, who with Dick¬ 
ens and Thackeray make up the trio of great novelists 
of the Victorian age, was born 1805, and died 1873. 
His best novels are, Eugene Aram, The Last Days of 
Pompeii , Pelham, The Caxtons, and Pienzi. Richelieu , 
and The Lady of Lyons, are strong and popular dramas, 
that while old, are ever new. 

EXTRACTS. 

Come, Death, and snatch me from disgrace. 

— Richelieu. 


In the bright lexicon of youth there is no such word 

as fail. 


Reading without purpose is sauntering, not exercise. 
More is got from one book on which the thought settles for 
a definite end in knowledge, than from libraries skimmed 
over by a wandering eye. A cottage flower gives honey to 
the bee—a king’s garden none to the butterfly. 





Cummings' Encyclopedia. 205 

Eliot. 

Mrs. Marian C. Lewes, nee Evans, known to the 
literary world as “George Eliot,” was born 1820, and 
died 1880. She deserves first place as a female novel¬ 
ist. Adam Bede , The Mill on the Floss , Romola , Mid- 
dlemarch , and Felix Holt the Radical , are some of her 
excellent novels of which the reading world is very fond. 

EXTRACTS. 

In every parting there is an image of death. 

Our deeds determine us as much as we determine our 
deeds. 

Carlyle. 

Thomas Carlyle, the very first literary light of Scot¬ 
land, was born 1795, and died 1881. Among his best 
works may be mentioned Hero Worship , Life of Fred¬ 
erick the Great , and his Essays . 

EXTRACTS. 

The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be conscious 
of none. 

Other Writers of Note. 

Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856). Hamilton 
was a philosopher, profound of thought and broad of 
culture. His Essays from the Edinburgh Review , and 
his Lectures, are his principal works. 

John Rcskin (1819- ). As a writer of prose, 

he has few superiors in beauty of description. Modern 
Painters , Seven Lamps , and Stones of Venice, are among 
his chief works. 

Rt. Hon. Benjamin Disraeli (1805-1881). Disraeli 
was a Jew who rose to the position of Premier of Eng¬ 
land, and Earl of Beaconsfield. His best literary effort 
was, Vivian Gray. 


206 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855). Shirley, Jane 
Eyre, and Villette, are very worthy novels from her pen. 

Rev. Charles Kingsley (1819-1875). Westward 
Ho, and Alton Locke, are from his pen. 

Samuel Lover (1797-1868). This Irish author 
wrote the popular novels, Rory O'Moore, and Handy 
Andy; and some sweet songs as, Angels Whisper, and 
Molly Baiun. 

Wilkie Collins (1824-1889). Perhaps his most 
popular novel is The Woman in White. 

Thomas Hughes (1823- ). School Days at 

Rugby, and Tom Brown at Oxford, are among his best 
productions. 

Charles Lever (1806-1872). As a delineator of 
the Irish character he was unexcelled. Charles O’ Mal- 
ley, is his best work. 

Richard B. Sheridan (1751-1816). Sheridan was 
a dramatist of great ability, as the Critic, The Rivals, 
and the School for Scandal, testify. 

Gerald Griffin (1803-1844). The early taking 
off of this brilliant young Irishman, cost the literary 
world one of its brightest lights. Holland Tide, and 
The Collegians, novels, and Gille Macliree, are from his 
pen. 

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Mill was the 
author of System of Logic , and of a work on Political 
Economy. 

Rt. Honorable William E. Gladstone, “ England’s 
Grand Old Man,” was born 1809, and died 1898. 
He was the most highly honored statesman of the age. 
He had been many times Premier of England. His 
Juventus Mundi, is worthy a high rank in literature. 

Francis Mahony (1804—1866). This wit, writing 
under the name of “ Father Prout,” has written many 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 207 

ingenious stories; The Bells of Shandon , is his sweetest 
poem. 

Eliza Cook (1817-1889). The lovers of The Old 
Arm Chair, will ever cherish the memory of Eliza Cook, 
while her poem on Washington, has endeared her to the 
American heart. 

Rev. C. H. Spurgeon (1834-1892); author of Vol¬ 
umes of Sermons , Morning by Morning, Evening by 
Evening, etc. 

His Eminence Nicholas Wiseman (1802-1865) ; 
author of Self Culture, Literature, and Art, lectures, 
and Fabiola, and Calista, novels. 

His Eminence John Henry Newman (1801-1890) ; 
author of Loss and Gain, and other religious novels of 
rare excellence. 

LATER WRITERS. 

Alfred Austin, Poet Laureate of England; author 
of England's Darling, etc. 

Anthony Hope Hawkins, novelist ; author of Pris¬ 
oner of Zenda, Phroso, etc. 

Dr. John Watson, “ Ian Maclaren,” Scotch novel¬ 
ist; author of Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush , etc. 

Robert L. Stevenson (1850-1894), Scotch-English- 
American novelist; author of St. Ives, etc. Stevenson 
died while yet young and was buried at Samoa. His 
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , has been put upon the stage 
with great effect. 

Frederick William Farrar, “Canon,” Orator and 
novelist; author of Darkness and Dawn, etc. 

Stanley J. Weyman, author of From the Memories 
of a Minister of France , and The Castle Inn , etc. 

Hall Caine, novelist; author of The Manxman , The 
Christian , etc. 


208 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Henry M. Stanley, American-English Explorer; 
author of In Darkest Africa , etc. 

A. Conan Doyle, novelist and lecturer; author of 
A Study in Scarlet , Beyond the City , The Sign of the 
Four , etc. 

James M. Barrie, Scotch novelist; author of The 
Little Minister , Sentimental Tommy , etc. 

Justin McCarthy, born in Cork, Ireland, 1830; 
Irish Parliamentarian; author of A History of Our 
Own 7'imes, The Four Georges , The Story of Gladstone's 
Life , etc. 

J. R. Crocket, Scotch-English novelist ; author of 
The Raiders, The Stickit Minister , etc. 

Paul Blouet, “Max O’Rell,” French-English 
novelist; author of John Bull and Co ., etc. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

COLONIAL PERIOD (1607-1775). 

This period of American literature is unimportant. 
The Colonists were struggling to maintain an existence, 
and gave little thought to literature. Two preachers, 
Revs. Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards, contri¬ 
buted works of indifferent worth. 

Cotton Mather (1663-1728) believed in witchcraft, 
and his Essays and other works smack strongly of that 
strange superstition. 

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) wrote An Inquiry 
into the Freedom of The Will ; this, some in charity, 
have called profound 

revolutionary period (1760-1830). 

This period saw England’s tyranny rebuked; Amer¬ 
ica’s freedom purchased by the blood of her heroic 
sons, and the “Ship of State” permanently launched. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


209 


The impress of this great struggle for independence is 
seen in the literature of the age. It is this period that 
gave us some of our best political and patriotic literature. 

POETS. 

Drake—Halleck. 

Halleck. 

Fitz-Green Halleck, the friend and companion of 
Drake, was born 1795, and died 1867. His heroic poem, 
Marco Bozarris , and Lines on The Death of Drake , may 
be said to embody his best efforts. 

EXTRACTS. 

For thou art Freedom’s now, and Fame’s, 

One of the few, the immortal names, 

That were not born to die. 

—Marco Bozarris. 


Green be the turf above thee, 

Friend of my better days! 

None knew thee but to love thee, 

None named thee, but to praise. 

—Lines on the Death of Drake. 

Drake. 

Joseph Rodman Drake was born 1795, and died 
1820. The American Flag , and The Culprit Fay , are 
two excellent poems from his pen. 

EXTRACTS. 

When Freedom, from her mountain height, 

Unfurled her standard to the air, 

She tore the azure robe of night, 

And set the stars of glory there! 

— The American Flag. 

OTHER POETS. 

Judge Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842) wrote that 
popular patriotic song, Hail Columbia. 



210 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Clement C. Moore (1779-1863) ; author of A Visit 
from St. Nicholas , etc. 

Francis Scott Key (1779-1843); author of The 
Star-Spangled Banner , etc. 

Samuel Woodworth (1785-1842); author of The 
Old Oaken Bucket, etc. 

prose writers. 

Franklin—Jefferson—Hamilton. 

Franklin. 

Benjamin Franklin, the great philosopher, states¬ 
man and scientist, was born in Boston, 1706, and died 
at Philadelphia, 1790. Franklin is to American litera¬ 
ture, what Bacon is to that of England. Self-made, he 
fought the battle of life unaided, and won for himself 
an undoing fame. We shall mention of his works, Poor 
Richard's Maxims , Dialogue with the Govt, Autobiog¬ 
raphy, his Essays , and Correspondence. 

EXTRACTS. 

If passion drives, let reason hold the reins. 

God helps them that help themselves. 

He who by the plow would thrive, himself must either 
hold or drive. 


If you would not be forgotten as soon as you are 
dead, either write things worth reading or do things worth 
writing. 

All would live long but none would be old. 

If you would learn the value of money, go and try to 
borrow some, for he that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing. 

Three removes are as bad as a lire. 

Pride is as loud a beggar as Want, and a great deal 
more saucy. 


i 









Cummings' Encyclopaedia. £11 

Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United 
States, was born in Virginia, 1743, and died there on July 
4, 1826. He was the most brilliant scholar of his time. 
Notes on Virginia , and The Declaration, of Independ¬ 
ence, are both from his pen, and stand the test of time 
as monuments of pure English. 

EXTRACTS. 

We hold thesf* truths to be. self-evident: that all men 
are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator 
with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 

—Declaration of Independence. 

Jefferson’s rules. 

1. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

2. Never trouble another for what you can do yourself. 

3. Never spend your money before you have it. 

4. Never buy what you do not want, because it is cheap. 

6. Pride costs more than hunger, thirst and cold. 

6. We seldom repent of having eaten too little. 

7. When angry, count ten before you speak; if very 
angry, count a hundred. 

Hamilton. 

Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury 
under Washington, was born 1757, and was killed in a 
duel with Aaron Burr, 1804. His place in literature was 
won by the merit of his contributions to The Federalist. 

Other Prose Writers. 

John Adams (1735-1826) ; Political Papers , and his 
Letters to his Wife are worthy of mention. He was the 
second President of the United States. He died on the 
same day as Jefferson, July 4. 

Noah Webster (1758-1843); Lexicographer, au¬ 
thor of Webster's Dictionary , etc. 

James Madison (1751-1836). Madison won a place in 
literature by the merit of his Papers to The Federalist. 


219 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Judge Kent (1763-1847) ; author of Legal Com¬ 
mentaries, etc. 

Judge Story (1779-1845) ; author of Constitution¬ 
al Law, etc. 

Chief Justice Marshall (1755-1835) ; author of 
Life of Washington, etc. 

William Wirt (1772-1879) wrote the Life of Pat¬ 
rick Henry, and The British Spy, etc. 

Matthew Carey (1760-1879) published the first 
Bible in America. Ji/p . • 

NATIONAL PERIOD TO CLOSE OF CIVIL WAR. 

Writers of Poetry. 

Byrant. 

William Cullen Bryant, that literary genius of 
whom Massachusetts is so justly proud, was b >rn in 
that state in 1794, and died in New York City, 1878. He 
first engaged in the practice of law, and in 1826, assum¬ 
ed editorial charge of the New York Evening Post, in 
which position he remained until his death. Bryant’s 
finest poems are Thanatopsis , The Flood of Years, 
Death of the Flowers , Planting of the Apple Tree , For¬ 
est Hymn, Waiting at the Gate, Green River, The 
Evening Wind and The Song of the Stars. He also pub¬ 
lished several books of travel, and a Translation of 
Homer. 

EXTRACTS. 

Truth crushed to earth, shall rise again; 

The eternal years of God are hers; 

But error, wounded, writhes in pain, 

And dies among his worshipers. 

— The Battlefield. 

So live, that when thy summons comes to join 

The innumerable caravan that moves 

To that mysterious realm where each shall take 



Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


218 


His chamber in the silent halls of death—, 

Thou go, not like the quarry slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

— Thanatopsis. 

Longfellow. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow*, a child of Maine, 
was born 1807, and died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
1882. His poems are the personification of grace and 
refinement, and take first piace in the American heart. 
Among his best poems are, Evangeline , The Builders , 
Tales of a Wayside Inn , The Building of the Ship , 
Courtship of Miles Standish , The Old Clock on the 
Stairs , The Bridge , Resignation , The Day is Done , The 
Hanging of the Crane , and Santa Filomena. He is the 
author of some excellent w*orks of prose, among which 
is Hyperion. 

EXTRACTS. 

There is no fireside howsoe’er defended, 

But has one vacant chair. 

—Besigna tion. 


Our lives are rivers, gliding free 
To that unfathomed, boundless sea, 
The silent grave. 


Let us then be up and doing, 
With a heart for any fate; 

Still achieving, still pursuing, 
Learn to labor and to w r ait. 

—Psalm of Life. 


Defeat may be victory in disguise, 
The lowest ebb is the turn of the tide. 


Be still, sad heart and cease repining; 
Behind the clouds is the sun still shining ; 
Thy fate is the common fate of all, 






2X4 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Into each life some rain must fall, 

Some days must be dark and dreary. 

— The Rainy Day. 


The heights by great men reached and kept 
Were not attained by sudden flight, 

But they, while their companions slept, 

Were toiling upward in the night. 

— The Ladder of St. Augustine. 

Whittier. 

John Greenleaf Whittier, the farmer boy of Massa¬ 
chusetts, was born at Haverhill, 1807, and died at Amee- 
bury, 1892. Whittier wrote both prose and poetry but 
excelled in poetry. He displayed more vigor and real 
poetic genius than Longfellow, but fell short of him in 
culture. Some of his best poems are, Snow Bound , 
Maud Muller, Among the Hills , Barbara Frietchie, A 
Tent on the Beach , My Psalm , Centennial Hymn , and 
My Playmate , Old Portraits, Modern Sketches , and Lit¬ 
erary Recreations , are his best efforts in prose. 


EXTRACTS. 

• » 

For of all sad words of tongue or pen. 

The saddest are these , 11 It might have been.” 

—Maud Muller. 


For still in mutual sufferance lies 
The secret of true living; 

Love scarce is love, that never knows 
The sweetness of forgiving. 

—Among the Hills. 


Our lives are albums written through 
With good or ill, with false or true; 

And as the blessed angels turn 
The pages of our years, 

God grant they read the good with »miles, 
And blot the ill with tears. 


—In An Album. 





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215 


The riches of our commonwealth 

Are free, strong minds and hearts of health; 

And more to her than gold or grain, 

The cunning hand and cultured brain. 

—Our State. 

Lowell. 

James Russell Lowell, another of Massachusetts’ 
gifted sons, was born at Cambridge, 1819, and died 1892. 
For years Lowell was professor of Belles-Lettres at Har¬ 
vard. He was equally distinguished as a poet, essayist 
and critic. Among the best of his poems are, The Big- 
low Papers, Under the Willows, The Present Crisis, A 
Glance Behind the Curtain, Sir Launfal, The First 
Snow Fall, Longing, and Commemoration Ode. Among 
My Books, and My Study Window, are his best prose 
works. 

EXTRACTS. 

And what is so rare as a day in June? 

— Vision of Sir Launfal. 


Before man made us citizens, great nature made us 
men. 


—The Capture. 


Of all the myriad moods of mind 
That through the soul come thronging, 

What one was e’er so dear, so kind, 

So beautiful, as longing? 

The thing we long for, that we are 
For one transcendent moment, 

Before the present, poor and bare, 

Can make its sneering comment. 

— Longing. 


In character, in manners, in style, in all things, the su¬ 
preme excellence is simplicity. 

— Simplicity. 


When a deed is done for Freedom, through the broad earth’s 
aching breast, 

Runs a thrill of joy prophetic, trembling on from east to 
west, 






210 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

And the slave, where’er he cowers, feels the soul within 
him climb 

To the awful verge of manhood, as the energy sublime 
Of a century bursts full-blossomed on the thorny stem of 
time. 

— The Present Crisis. 

Holmes. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes was born 1809, and died 
1894. For many years Dr. Holmes delivered lectures on 
Medicine at Harvard. He was distinguished alike 
in poetry and prose, and displays, throughout all his 
works, delightful humor, striking originality and un¬ 
common brilliancy. His Lyrics and other poems of 
note are Old Ironsides , Union and Liberty , Welcome 
to the Nation , The One-Hoss Shay , etc. His prose 
works are chiefly his contributions to the Atlantic 
Monthly ; first under the title of The Autocrat of the 
Breakfast Table , again as The Professor of the Break¬ 
fast Table , and The Poet of the Breakfast Table. 
Among his novels maybe mentioned Elsie Venner , and 
The Guardian Angel. 

EXTRACTS. 

Day hath put on his jacket, and around 
His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. 

— Evening. 


Put not your trust in money, but put your money in 

trust. 


Men, like peaches and pears, grow* sw*eet a little w*hile 
before they begin to decay. 


It is faith in something, and enthusiasm for some¬ 
thing, that makes life w r orth living. 


Knowledge and timber should not be much used until 
they are seasoned. 


Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle which fits 
them all. 







Cummings'' Encyclopaedia. 


217 


Lord of the universe! shield us and guide us, 

Trusting thee always through shadow and sun! 

Thou hast united us—, who shall divide us? 

Keep us, oh, keep us the many in one! 

LTp with our banner bright, 

Sprinkled with starry light, 

Spread its fair emblems from mountain to shore, 
While through the sounding sky, 

Loud rings the nation’s cry, 

Union and Liberty, one evermore. 

— Union and Liberty. 

Poe. 

Edgar Allen Poe was born in Boston, 1809, and 
died in Baltimore, 1849. His was a brilliant but wasted 
genius; his adult life was one continuous debauch, and 
finally ended at the age of forty. The Fall of the House 
of Usher, The Murders of the Rue Morgue, romances; 
and The Raven, and The Bells, poems, are strong pro¬ 
ductions from his pen. 

EXTRACTS. 

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 
weary 

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore— 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a 
tapping, 

As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door, 
1 ’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “ tapping at my chamber 
door; 

Only this, and nothing more.” 

—The Raven. 

Saxe. 

John Godfrey Saxe was born in Vermont, 1816, 
and died 1887. The Proud Miss MacBride, and The 
Game of Life, are humorous productions that show con¬ 
siderable ability. 


EXTRACTS. 

Depend upon it, my snobbish friend, 
Your family line you can’t ascend 
Without good reason to apprehend 
You’ll find it waxed at the farther end 
By some plebeian vocation ! 


218 


Cummings' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


Or, worse than that, your boasted line 
May end in a loop of stronger twine 
That plagued some worthy relation! 

— The Proud Miss Mac Bride. 


In battle or business, whatever the game, 

In law or in love, it is ever the same; 

In the struggle for power, or scramble for pelf, 

Let this be your motto: “Rely on yourself!” 

For whether the prize be a ribbon or throne, 

The victor is he who can “go it alone.” 

— The Game of Life. 

Re $d. 

Thomas Buchanan Re^d, a gifted son of the “Key¬ 
stone State,” was born at Chester, Pa., 1822, and died 
in New York City, 1872. Reed was an accomplished 
artist of the brush as well as the pen; he spent much of 
his lime in Rome studying the great Masters. Among 
the best of his contributions to the literature of his 
country are, Sheridan's Ride , Drifting , The House by 
the Sea, The Wagoner of the Alleghanies and The Hew 
Pastoral. 


EXTRACTS. 

Hurrah! hurrah for Sheridan! 

Hurrah ! hurrah for horse and man! 

And when their statues are placed on high, 
Under the dome of the Union sky, 

The American soldier’s Temple of fame; 
Therewith the glorious general’s name, 

Be it said, in letters both bold and bright, 

“ Here is the steed that saved the day, 

By carrying Sheridan into the fight, 

From Winchester, twenty miles away!” 

— Sheridan's Ride. 


The maid who binds her warrior’s sash, 

With smile that well her pain dissembles, 

The while beneath her drooping lash 
One starry tear-drop hangs and trembles; 
Though heaven alone records the tear, 

And fame shall never know her story, 

Her heart has shed a drop as dear 
As e’er bedewed the field of glory! 

—The Brave at Home. 




Cummings * Fncyclopcedia. 
Boker. 


219 


George H. Boker was born in Philadelphia, 1824, 
and died 1890. He served his country as Minister at 
Constantinople and at St. Petersburgh. He has written 
some excellent dramas and lyric poems. Anne Boleyn, 
and The Betrothed , are two of his best dramas; The 
Ivory Carver, The Black Regiment , and The Ballad of 
Sir John Franklin, are some of his poems. 

Taylor. 

Bayard Taylor w r as born at Chester, Pa., 1825, and 
died at Berlin, while serving as Minister there, 1878. 
Taylor traveled extensively, and his ready pen has 
contributed many excellent works of both poetry and 
prose. He wrote and recited the Centennial Ode, at 
Philadelphia, 1876. Among his poems may be mentioned 
Lars, Poems of Home and Travel, Poems of the Orient , 
The Masque of the Gods , The Poet's Journal and The 
Picture of St. John. His ability as a descriptive writer 
is shown in his Views Afloat.. The best of his novels 
are, Hannah Thurston , The Story of Kcnnett, John 
Godfrey's Fortunes , and Joseph and his Friend. 

EXTRACTS. 

He who would lead must first himself be led; 

Who would be loved be capable of love. 

—From a Sonnet. 


North and South, we are met as brothers; 

East and West we are wedded as one; 
Right of ea^*h shall secure our mothers; 
Child of each is her faithful son! 

We give thee heart and hand, 

Our glorious native land, 

F’or battle has tried thee, and time endears: 
We will write thy story, 

And keep thy glory 
As pure as of old for a thousand years 1 

—Song of 1876. 



220 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 
Cary. 


Alice and Phoebe Cary. These sisters, natives of 
Cincinnati, contributed some excellent poems to our lit¬ 
erature. Alice was born in 1820, and died in New York 
City, 1871; Phoebe died a few months after. Alice’s 
best poems are, Thanksgiving , Order for a Picture , Pic¬ 
tures of Memory , The Bridal Veil , and The Poet to the 
Painter. Married not Mated , and Hollywood , novels; 
and a book of sketches, Clovernook , are her best works 
in prose. 

EXTRACTS. 

Let us gather up the sunbeams, 

Lying all around our path; 

Let us keep the wheat and roses, 

Casting out the thorns and chalf. 

—Pheebe Cary. 


And when a man can live apart 
From works, on theologic trust, 

I know the blood about his heart 
Is dry as dust. 

—Alice Cary —My Creed. 


Do not look for wrong and evil, 

You will find them if you do; 

As you measure for your neighbor 
He will measure back to you. 

—A lice Cary— C her rfu Iness. 

Aldrich . 

Thomas Bailey Aldrich was born in Portsmouth, 
New Hampshire, in 1836. He has written some splendid 
poems and novels. Among his poems may be mentioned 
Babie Bell, The Pace Against the Pane , and Friar Je¬ 
rome's Beautiful Book. Some of his novels are. The 
Story of a Bad Boy , Prudence Palfrey, and Marjorie 
Daw. 




Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


221 


EXTRACT. 

Have you not heard the poets tell 
How came the dainty Babie Bell 
Into this world of ours? 

The gates of heaven were left ajar ; 

With folded hands and dreamy eyes, 

Wandering out of Paradise, 

She saw this planet, like a star, 

Hung in the glistening depths of even, 

Its bridges running to and fro, 

O’er which the white-winged angels go, 

Bearing the holy dead to heaven ; 

She touched a bridge of flowers - those feet, 

So light they did not bend the bells 
Of the Celestial asphodels! 

They fell like dew upon the flowers* 

Then all the air grew strangely sweet; 

And thus came dainty Babie Bell 
Into this world of ours. 

— Babie Bell. 

HOLLAND. 

Dr. J. G. Holland was born 1819, and died 1881. 
At the time of his death he was editor of Scribner's 
Monthly. Holland wrote both prose and poetry, but is 
best known as a writer of prose. His best prose wmrks 
are Plain Talks , Timothy Titcomb's Letters , Gold Foil 
Seven Oaks . and Arthur Bonmecastle ; the last tw T o are 
novels. His Mistress of the Manse , Bitter Sweet, and 
Kathrina , are his principal poems. 

EXTRACT. 

Life evermore is fed by death, 

In earth and sea and sky, 

And that a rose may breathe its breath, 

Something must die. 

—Bitter Sweet. 

Payne. 

John Howard Payne (1792-1852), author of that 
bt autiful poem, Home, Sweet Horne. He was a dramat¬ 
ist of some note and wrote Brutus , and other dramas. 


222 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


EXTRACT. 

’Mid pleasures and palaces, 

Tho’ we may roam, 

Be it ever so humble, 

There’s no place like home. 

— Home, Svjeet Home. 

Harte. 

Francis Bret Harte (1837- ). Harte is a writer 

of deserving popularity. The Heathen Chinese, Dick¬ 
ens in Camp , A Newport Romance, The Society upon the 
Stanislaus, poems; The Luck of Roaring Camp , The Idyl 
of Red Gulch, and the Outcasts of Poker Flat , prose 
sketches. Harte is now in London still writing of the 
“Wild and Wooly West:” one of his latest is Three 
Partners; or, The Strike on Heavy Tree Hill. 

Willis—Morris—Stoddard. 

N. P. Willis (1806-1867), author of Death of Ab¬ 
salom, and Ilagar in the Wilderness. Willis was the 
associate editor of The Home Journal, with Morris. 

George P. Morris (1802-1861), author of Woodman 
Spare that Tree, and My Mother's Bible. He was for 
many years editor of The Hume Journal. 

« R. H. Stoddard (1825- ), author of The Burial 

of Lincoln, and Hymn to the Beautiful, Little Red Rid¬ 
ing Hood, etc. 

Prose Writers of This Period. 

Irving. 

Washington Irving, chief among American prose 
writers, was born in New York, 1783, and died at Sun¬ 
ny Side on the Hudson, 1859. Irving tried the mercan¬ 
tile business and the law, but not succeeding, he took 
up his pen and with it w on both fame and fortune. He 
spent twenty-four years in Europe; four of these as 


Cummings' JEncyclopcedia. 


223 


United States Minister to Spain. His best works are, 
The Sketch Book , Knickerbocker, and Biographies. The 
Sketch Book contains such popular sketches as Rip Van 
Winkle, The Broken Heart, The Legend of Sleepy Hol¬ 
low, his Knickerbocker is a humorous history of New 
York ; his biographies comprise the Life of Washington, 
Life of Goldsmith, and Life of Columbus. The Alham¬ 
bra, and The Conquest of Grenada, are also fine produc¬ 
tions. 

EXTRACTS. 

The Almighty Dollar, that great object of universal 
devotion. —Creole Village. 


Little minds are tamed and subdued by misfortune, 
but great minds rise above it. 

Prescott. 

William H. Prescott, America’s first great historian, 
was born at Salem, Mass., 1796, and died 1850. He 
graduated at Harvard, and, although his eyes failed him 
sadly, entered upon his life work with vigor and rose 
to great eminence in the world of letters. Ferdinand 
and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru, and 
a volume of Miscellanies , are among his best contribu¬ 
tions to our literature. 

EXTRACT. 

The triumphs of the warrior are bounded by the nar¬ 
row theater of his own age; but those of a Scott or a 
Shakespeare will be renewed with greater and greater lustre 
in ages yet unborn. 

Bancroft. 

George Bancroft, historian and statesman, was born 
in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1800, and died 1891. His 
education was received at Harvard and at Gottingen, 
Germany. He served his country as Minister to Ger- 



224 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


many and England, and as Secretary of the Navy. His 
principal work is his History of the United States. 

EXTRACTS. 

The charities of life are scattered everywhere, enam¬ 
elling the vales of human beings as the flowers paint the 
meadows. 

Cooper. 

James Fenimore Cooper, whose literary ability has 
won for him a name on two continents, w r as born at 
Burlington, New 7 Jersey, September 15, 1789, and died 
at Cooperstown, N. Y., September 14, 1851. Cooper’s 
thirty-one novels are known as Sea Tales, Leather 
Stocking Series , and Miscellaneous Tales. The Prairie, 
The Spy, The Last of the Mohicans, The Red Rover, and 
The Pilot, are some of his pieces. He also w^rote and 
published a JSfaval History of the United States. 

Hawthorne. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne, another of Massachusetts’ 
literary sons wms born at Salem, 1804, and died at Con¬ 
cord, 1864. Among the many excellent works of Haw¬ 
thorne w 7 e may name The Scarlet Letter, Twice-Told 
Tales , The House of Seven Gables, Mosses from an Old 
Manse , The Blithedale Romance , and The Marble Faun. 

EXTRACTS. 

No man w r ho ever needs a monument ever ought to 
have one. — Monument. 

Persons who can only be graceful and ornamental— 
who can give the world nothing but flowers— should die 
young. - — Mosses From an Old Manse. 


All brave men love; for he only is brave w T ho has af¬ 
fections to fight for, whether in the daily battle of life or in 
physical contests. 




Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 
Stowe. 


225 


Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, wife of Prof. C. E. 
Stowe and sister of the late Henry Ward Beecher, was 
born in Lichfield, Connecticut, 1812, and died 1896. 
Uncle Tom's Cabin was her great work. She wrote The 
Minister's Wooing , My Wife and /, and Old Town 
Folks. 


EXTRACTS. 

Everyone who goes from us to the world of light, goes 
holding an invisible chain of love by which to draw us there. 


One year ago—what loves, what schemes 
Far into life! 

What joyous hopes, what high resolves, 

What generous strife! 

Where hast thou been this year, beloved? 

Wh«t hast thou seen? 

What visions fair, what glorious life? 

Where hast thou been? 

Not dead, not sleeping, not even gone; 

But present still; 

And waiting for the coming hour 
Of God’s gweet will. 

Lord of the living and the dead, 

Our Savior dear, 

We lay in silence at thy feet 
This sad, sad year. 

— Only a Year. 

Everett. 

Edward Everett, orator and statesman, was born 
at Dorchester, Massachusetts, 1794 and died, 1865. His 
orations are literary gems. 

EXTRACTS. 

Education is a better safeguard of liberty, than a stand¬ 
ing army. If we retrench the wages of the schoolmaster, 
we must raise those of the recruiting sergeant. 



220 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


No gilded dome swells from the lowly roof to catch the 
morning or evening beam; but the love and gratitude of 
united America settle upon it in one eternal sunshine. 

—Eulogy on Washington. 

Webster—Clay—Calhoun—Pinckney—Hayne—Henry. 

Daniel Webster (1782—1852), Henry Clay (1777— 
1852) John Caldwell Calhoun (1782—1850), Charles 

Cotesworth Pinckney (1746—1825), Robert Young 
Hayne (1791—1839) and Patrick Henry (1736—1799). 

These great men were each the peer of Everett in the 
field of Oratory and the Science of Statesmanship; they 
each played active, brilliant, patriotic parts, in the es¬ 
tablishment of our government, and each contributed a 
large share to the annals of American literature. 

EXTRACTS. 

I would rather be right than President. 

—Henry Clay. 

Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insepar¬ 
able. — Webster—Reply to Hayne. 

I know not what course others may take, but as for me, 
give me Liberty or give me death. 

—Patrick Henry. 

He had the indisputable basis of a high character, un¬ 
spotted integrity and honor unimpeached. Nothing grovel¬ 
ing, low, or meanly selfish came near his head or his heart. 

— Webster—On Calhoun. 

Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute. 

— C. C. Pinckney. 

Emerson—Worcester. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson, who stands next to Frank¬ 
lin in depth of meaning, was born in Boston, 1803, and 
died 1882. His best works are Representative Men, 
English Traits , and his volume of Essays. 

Joseph Emerson Worcester, (1784—1866), lexi¬ 
cographer; author of Worcester’s Dictionary, etc. 






Cummings' Encyclopeedia. 


227 


EXTRACTS. 

Self-trust is the essence of heroism. 


— Emerson. 


The only way to have a friend is to be one. 

—Emerson. 


Next to the originator of a good thought is the first 
quoter of it. 


— Emerson . 


NATIONAL PERIOD SINCE CLOSE OF CIVIL WAR. 

FOETS OF THIS AGE. 

Miiler. 

C. H. Miller, better known as “Joaquin Miller,’’ 
was born in Indiana, 1841; and is at this writing, March 
1898, in the Klondike Gold field as a correspondent for 
a New York journal. Miller has written many good 

poems, some of which are, The Ship in the Desert , Songs 
of the Sierras, Isles of the Amazons , and Songs of the 
Sun-Lands. His Burns and Byron, and Sunrise in Ven¬ 
ice, are worthy productions. 

EXTRACT. 

In men whom men condemn as ill 
I find so much of goodness still. 

In men whom men pronounce divine 
I find so much of sin and blot, 

I hesitate to draw a line 

Between the two, where God has not. 

— Burns and Byron. 

O’REILLY. 

John Boyle O'reilly, the most idolized of all our 
adopted sons, was born at Down Castle, Ireland, 1844. 
His sympathies were with struggling Ireland; for this 
he was arrested, tried by a packed jury, convicted and 
sentenced to a life-exile in Australia, from which place 





228 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


he escaped and came to America ; this was in the sixties. 
The love he bore his native land was fully equalled by the 
devotion, patriotism and loyalty, with which O’Reilly 
ever cherished the Stars and Stripes. He died August, 
1890. The Ride of Collins Craves, The Temple of 
Friendship. At Fredericksburg, Wendell Phillips, Pil¬ 
grim Fathers, America, The Dukite Snake, The Amber 
Whale, and The Mutiny of the Chains, are some of his 
excellent poems. 


EXTRACTS. 

God send u = peace, and keep red strife away; 

But should it come, God send us men and steel! 
The land is dead that dare not face the day 

When foreign danger threats the common weal. 

—At Fredericksburg . 


But by her soldiers’ graves Columbia proves 

How last toward morn th > night of manhood mjves. 

Those low white lines at G ‘ttvsburg remain 

The sacr ^d record >f her humblest slain 

Whose children’s children in their time shall come 

To view with pride their hero-father’s tomb, 

While down the ages runs the patriot line. 

Till rich tradition makes each tomb a shrine. 

— America. 


Field. 

Eugene Field, the literary star of the West, was 
born 1850 and died 1895, while yet in the full vigor and 
bloom of manhood. He was to the West, what Bill 
Nye was to the East. As a poet he was admired, and 
his sweet poems are cherished in the American home. 
At his death he was with the Chicago News. Love 
Affairs , was his last and his best work. 

extract. 

# 

Now, he who ever in h's life has been a little boy 

Will not r provn me when he hears the language I employ 

To stigmatize as wicked the deacon’s zealous spite 

In interfering with the play wheiein we found delight; 



Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


229 


And so I say with confidence, not unalloyed with pride: 
u Gol durn the man who sprinkles ashes where the youngsters 
slide.” 

—Ashes on the Slide. 

Carleton. 

Will Carleton, famous as the author of Farm 
Ballads, was born in 1845. Over the 11 ills to the Poor 
House, Betsy and I are Out, and Gone with a Handsomer 
Man , are most popular and charming poems from his 
pen. 


EXTRACT. 

On the lake-encircled homestead of the thriving Wolverine, 
On the beauteous Western prairies, with their carpeting of 
green, 

By the sweeping Mississippi, long our country’s pride and 
boast, 

On the rugged Rocky Mountains, and the weird Pacific 
Coast, 

In the listless, sunny Southland, with its blossoms and its 
vines, 

On the bracing Northern hilltops, and amid their murmur¬ 
ing pines, 

Over all our happy country—over all our Nation spread, 

Is a band of noble heroes— is our Army of the Dead. 

— Oar Army of the Dead. 

OTHER FAMOUS WRITERS. 

We find ourselves compelled to conclude this 
department with but a brief mention of other authors 
whose literary labors have endeared them to the Ameri¬ 
can heart. Some of these have laid by their pens forever, 
but their memories are ever green; of those who are 
still spared to shed the sunshine of their influence upon 
the literature of the future, we are justly proud; we 
feel sure that they will win fresh laurels, and attain to 
still greater eminence in the literary world. 

Richard H. Dana (1787-1879), author of Tne Buc¬ 
caneer, a poem, and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc. 


230 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


John Pierpont (1785-1866), author of E Pluribus 
Unum, etc. 

Alfred B. Street (1811-1881), author of The Gray 

Forest Eagle, etc. 

Mrs. Lydia H. Sigourney (1791-1865), author of 
Letters to My Mother, Letters on Life, etc. 

Harriet T. Monroe, author of The World's Fair 
Ode, etc. 

Eleanor C. Donnelly, author of The Heavenly 
Guides, A Deed Sublime, etc. 

James Whitcomb Riley—. Mr. Riley is one of the 
most popular poets of the day. He was long associated 
with Nye, on the platform. His poems are known to 
every household. One of the last and not the least of 
his works is, Rubaiyat of Doc Sifers: 

Ella Wheeler Wilcox, author of Charity Abroad, 
Woman , etc. 

Dr. Thomas Dunn English, author of Ben Bolt, etc. 

J. T. Trowbridge, author of The Flying Machine, 
The Vagabonds, The Charcoal Man, After the Sale, etc. 

Father Ryan, author of War Ballads. 

William Gilmore Simms (1806-1870), author of Gt*y 
Rivers, '1 he Yemassee. novels; Life of Marion, Life of 
John Smith, biographies; Atlantis, and Lays of the 
I’almetlo , poems. 

Mrs. Louise Chandler Moulton, author of Some 
Men's Wives, etc. 

John E. Cook, author of The Virginia Comedians, 
Life of Lee, etc. 

Edward Everett Hale, author of My Double, Man 
without a Country, etc. 

Miss Louise M. Alcott (1832-1888), author of 
Little Women, Little Men, etc. 

Mary Jane Holmes, author of Lena Rivers, Tempest 
and Su7ishine, etc. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


281 


Mrs. Sara J. Lippencott, “Grace Greenwood,” 
author of Greenwood Leaves, etc. 

Augusta E. Wilson, author of St. Elmo , Tnfelice, 
Beulah , e£c. 

Mrs. Mary A Sadler, author of /fed Hand of 
Ulster, Alice Biordan, etc. 

Mrs. A. D. T. Whitney, author of We Girls , etc. 

Mrs. Terhune, “Marion Harland,” author of The 
Hidden Path, etc. 

T. S. Arthur (1809-1885), author of Ten Nights in 
a Barroom. 

Mrs. E. D. N. Southworth, author of Retribution. 

Rev. E. P. Roe (1838-1888,)author of Opening of a 

Chestnut Burr, The Earth Trembled , Barriers Burned 

* 

Away, etc. 

Gen. Lew Wallace, author of Ben Hur, The Prince 
of India, A Fair God, etc. 

Mary Abigail Dodge, “Gail Hamilton,” author of 
Gala Days, etc. 

Henry W. Grady (1851-89), editor of The Atlantic 
Constitution, orator and story writer. 

Wendell Phillips (1811-1883), foremost among 
American orators; a lecturer and historian. 

George W. Childs (1820-1894), journalist and phil¬ 
anthropist; founder of the Philadelphia Ledger. 

George W. Curtis (1824-1892), journalist; editor 
of Harper s Weekly. 

John Gilmary Shea (1824-1890), journalist and 
historian; author of History of the Catholic Church in 
the United States. 

Benson J. Lossing (1813-1891), historian; author of 
an able work entitled Encyclopaedia of American Histo¬ 
ry, etc. 

Horace Greeley (1811-1879), editor of The New 
York Tribune', candidate for President, 1872. 


232 


Cummings 1 Encyclopaedia. 


Chas. A. Dana (1819-1897), journalist; editor of 
The New York Sun. 

Henry George (1839-1897, philosopher; author of 
Progress and Poverty, etc. Candidate for Mayor of 
Greater New York, and died from overwork three days 
before election. 

Helen Hunt Jackson (1831-1885), author of Ilet- 
tie's Strange History , Pomona, etc. 

F. Marion Crawford, born 1854, one of our most 
versatile authors. He has gleaned much from his exten¬ 
sive travels. We may mention among his best works; 
Mr. Isaacs, Casa Braccio, A Pose of Yesterday, and 
Corleone. 

Rudyard Kipling, Anglo-American writer; he has 
given us many good works of w T hich w'e shall mention, 
Out of India, The Jungle Book , Soldiers Three. 

John B. MacMaster, educator and writer; author 
of History of the People of the United States, etc. 

B. O. Flower, journalist and story writer; editor 
of The Arena. 

Martha Finley, born 1828, author of the Elsie 
Series', twenty-two volumes of young peoples’ stories. 

James Lane Allen, author of Sister Dolorosa, A 
Kentucky Colonel, The White Cowl , Butterflies , The 
Choir Invisible, etc. 

James Jeffery Roche, journalist and poet, author 
of The Life of John Boyle O'Peilly, Ballads of Blue Wa¬ 
ters, etc. 

John Clark Ridpath, author of a History of the 
World , History of the United States, etc. 

Dr. John Talbot Smith, author of The Philosophy 
of Literature, Aristotle and the Christian Church, etc. 

A. S. Barnes, historian and publisher; author of 
History of the United States, etc. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


233 


Frances Hodgson Burnett, author of Little Lord 
Fauntleroy , That Lass O' Lowrie's, Ilis Grace of Os¬ 
mond, etc. 

John Hay, born 1838, author of Jim Bludso , The 
Bread Winner, IAttle Breeches, History of the Civil 
War, etc. He was Minister at the Court of St. James, 
but resigned to become Secretary of State, 1898. 

William Dean Howells, poet and novelist: author 
of Stops of Various Quills, My Literary Passion, The 
Landlord of Lion's Head, etc. 

Edward Bellamy, born 1850, and died 1898 ; author 
of Looking Backward, Equality, etc. 

Thomas Nelson Page, born 1853, author of In Ole 
Virginia, Befo' Be War, etc. 

Edward Eggleston, author of The Hoosier School¬ 
master and A School History of the United States, etc. 

Dr. Dominic Brennan, “ D. O’Kelly Brandon,” 
author of many excellent works, of which the book of 
poems, Heart Tones, is very popular. 

Captain Charles King, author of popular novels, 
The Colonel's Daughter, The Deserter, Dunraven Pa7\ch, 
Captain Close, etc. King is now a brigadier-general in 
the Philippine army. 

William T. Adams, “Oliver Optic,” a journal 
writer of undisputed merit. 

George W. Cable, author of Old Creole Days, A 
Night in Acadia, etc. His novels portray the Creole 
life in true Southern style. 

Donald Grant Mitchell, “Ik Marvel,” author of 
lieveries of a Bachelor , Dream Life, My Farm at Edge- 
wood, Lands and Letters, etc. 

Samuel Clemens, “Mark Twain,” humorist; author 
of Tom Sawyer, Innocence Abroad, Pudd'nhead Wilson, 
Following the Equator, etc. 


234 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Francis M. Witcher, author of “Widow Bedot,” 
which was also her nom-de-plume. 

Marietta Holley, “Josiah Allen’s Wife,” story 
writer and humorist. 

Walter Besant, author of Beyond the Dreams of 
Avarice, The City of Ref uge, etc. 

Stephen Crane, author of The Black Riders, The 
Red Badge of Courage, etc . 

Paul Leicester Ford, novelist and essayist; author 
of The Honorable Peter Sterling, The Story of an Un¬ 
told Love , etc. 

Catherine E. Conway, essayist, author of A Lady 
and her Letters, etc. 

Alfred Henry Lewis, “Dan Quinn,” contributor 
and novelist, author of Wolfville , etc. 

Rorert Grant, author of The Reflections of a Mar¬ 
ried Man, etc. 

Grant Allen, novelist; author of The Woman Who 
Did, A Hilltop Novel, etc. 

Maurice Francis Egan, professor of Literature, 
and story writer, author of The Vacation of Edward. 
Conway, Jasper Thorn , etc. 

Hamlin Garland, novelist; author of The Return 
of the Private, In Main Traveled Roads, etc. 

Henry James, author of The Other House, etc. 

Albert Payson, author of Terhume, Syria from 
the Saddle, etc. 

Fergus Hume, author of The Mystery of the Han¬ 
som Cab. 

Maud Wilber Goodwin, author of The Colonial 
Cavalier, etc. 

S 

Edward W. Townsend, novelist and contributor; 
author of A Daughter of the Tenements, etc. 

Charles D. Warner, journalist; au.hor of The 
Backlog Studies , Summer in a Garden , etc. 




Cummings' Encyclopedia. 235 

Hopkinson Smith, author of Colonel Carter of Car- 
tersville, etc. 

Amelia E. Barr, novelist; author of A Daughter of 
Esau, A Rose of A Hundred Leaves, etc. 

Bessie B. O’Reilly, poet; has written some sweet 
poems that display ability worthy the daughter of the 
great poet. 

Thos. Wentworth Higginson, author of Young 
Folks' History of the United States, etc. 

Mrs. Burton Harrison, author of The Merry Maid 
of Arcady. 

Helen Choate Prince, author of A Transatlantic 
Chat el a in , etc. 

Edmund Clarence Steadman, author of The Li- 
brary of American Literature , Victorian Poets, etc. 

Robert J Burdett, humorist and lecturer. 

Amos J. Cummings, journalist, contributor and poli¬ 
tician ; at present a Congressman from New York. 

Henry Waterson, journalist and lecturer; editor of 
the Louisville Courier Journal. 

Frank A. Munsey, journalist; editor of Munsey's 
Mag azine. 

Murat Halstead, contributor and journalist. 

Whitelaw Reid, journalist; editor oftheWeic York 
Tribune. 

Albert Shaw, journalist; editor of the Review of 
Reviews. 

Julian Hawthorne, novelist and correspondent; 
author of Fortune's Fool , Prince Saroni's Wife, etc. 

H. Rider Haggard, novelist ; author of She, The 
Children of the Mist, The Wizard, etc. 

Matthew Landon, “Eli Pei kins,” American hu¬ 
morist. 

Charles S. O’Neill, poet and contributor; author 
of Labor Day, The Execution of Mary E. Suratt, etc. 


236 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Richard Harding Davis, contributor and novelist; 
author of A Year from a Reporter's Note Book, Soldiers 
of Fortune, etc. 

Dr. S. Wier Mitchell, scientist and novelist; author 
of Hugh Wynne, etc. 

John D. Barry, novelist; author of Mademoiselle 
Blanche, A Daughter of Thespis, etc. 

Henry Austin Adams, journalist and story writer; 
editor of Donahoe's Magazine. 

Richard Watson Gilder, poet and journalist; editor 
of Century Magazine. 

John Brisben Walker and Arthur S. Hardy, 
journalists; editors of The Cosmopolitan. 

Very Rev. W. Corby, c. s.c. (1833-1897), C haplain 
of the famous Irish Brigade, in the Civil War; author of 
Memories of Chaplain Life, etc. 

Rev. Henry Ward Beecher (1813-1887), celebrated 
minister of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, author of Ser¬ 
mons, The Farmer and Gardner, etc. 

His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, author of 
The Faith of Our Fathers, etc. 

Hon. James G. Blaine (1830-1893), celebrated 
orator, statesman and politician, candidate for President 
in 1884; author of Twenty Years of Congress, etc. 

Hon. William J. Bryan, born March 19, 1860, can¬ 
didate for President in 1896. Champion of the cause of 
Bi-metalism; orator of the first rank, author of The First 
Battle, a story of the campaign of 1896. 

D. J. O’Donahoe, poet; author of The Cuban Hero, 

etc . 

» GEMS of thought. 

Dare to be true; nothing can need a lie; 

A fault that needs it most grows two thereby. 

— George Herbert. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


237 


Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of 
celestial fire called conscience. 

— Washington—Moral Maxims. 


To God, thy country and thy friend be true. 

— Vaughn. 


With malice towards none, with charity for all. 

—Abraham Lincoln. 


No one but myself ever did me any harm. 

— Napoleon. 


Necessity is the mother of invention. 

— George Farquhar. 


Facts are stubborn things. 

— T. G. Smoller. 


Fame is a vapor; popularity an accident; riches take 
wings; the only earthly certainty is oblivion. 

—Horace Greeley. 


Death rides on every passing breeze, 

He lurks in every flower. 

—Bishojo Heber. 


Be to her virtues very kind; 

Be to her faults a little blind. 

—Matthew Prior. 


We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; 
In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 

— P. J. Bailey. 


’Tis not the whole of life to live, 

Nor all of death to die. — Montgomery. 


Behind a frowning Providence, 

He hides a smiling face. — Cowper. 


Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. 

— Young. 


A man convinced against his will, 
Is of the same opinion still. 


— Butler. 















238 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


A thing 1 of beauty is a joy forever. 

—John Keats. 


To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

—Thomas Campbell. 


Immodest words admit of no defense, 

For want of decency is want of sense. 

— Wentworth Dillon. 


Death’s but a path that must be trod, 

It man would ever pass to God. 

— Thomas Parnell. 


Speak gently; ’tis a little thing 

Dropped in the heart’s deep well; 

The good, the joy, which it may bring, 

Eternity shall tell. 

— G. W. Haugford. 


Fear is the white-lipped sire of subterfuge and 
treachery. 

— Mrs . Sigourney. 


There’s not a string attuned to mirth 
But has its chord in melancholy. 

Education is the chief defense of nations. 

— Burke. 


One and God makes a majority. 

— Fred Douglass. 


But whether on the scaffold high, 

Or in the battle’s van, 

The fittest place where man can die 
Is where he dies for man. 

— M. F. Barry. 


The American Republic must live. Popular commo¬ 
tion and partisan fury may dash their mad waves against it; 
but they shall roll back shattered, spent. Persecution shall 
not shake it, fanaticism disturb it, nor revolution change it. 
But it shall stand towering sublime, like the last mountain 
in the deluge, while the earth rocks at its feet, and the 
thunders peal above its head—majestic, immutable, magnif¬ 
icent. — Wendell Phillips. 












Cummings’ Encyclopaedia. 239 

When the years of earth are over, and the cares of Earth are 
done, 

When the reign of Time is ended, and Eternity begun; 

When the thunders of Omniscience on our wakened senses 
roll. 

And the sky above shall wither, and be gathered like a scroll; 

When, among the lofty mountains, and across the mighty 
sea, 

The sublime celestial bugler shall ring out the reveille, 

Then shall march with brightest laurels, and with proud, 
victorious tread, 

To their station up in heaven, our Grand Army of the 
Dead! 

— Ccirleton—Army of the Dead. 


A Mother’s first ministration for her infant is to enter, 
as it were, the valley of the shadow of death, and win its 
life at the peril of her own. How different must an affec¬ 
tion thus founded be from all others! 

— Mrs. Sigourney. 


They call that man a statesman whose ear is tuned to 
catch the slightest pulsations of a pocket-book, and to 
denounce as a demagogue anyone who dares to listen to the 
heart beat of humanity. — William J. Bryan. 


Flow on, ye tears! and bear me home; 

Flow not! ye tears of deeper woe; 

Flow on, ye tears! that are but foam 
Of deeper waves that will not flow. 

A little while—I reach the shore 
Where tears flow not forever more! 

—Father Abram J. By an — Tears. 


Turn from the glittering bribe thy scornful eye, 
Nor sell for gold what gold could never buy; — 
The peaceful slumber, self-approving day, 
Unsullied fame, and conscience ever gay. 

— Dr. Johnson. 


It matters very little what immediate spot may 
have been the birthplace of such a man as Washington. No 
people can claim, no country can appropriate him. The 
boon of Providence to the human race, his fame is eternity, 
and his dwelling-place creation. 

— Wendell Philips. 


Small habits well pursued betimes, 

May reach the dignity of crimes. 

—Hannah More. 








240 


Cummmgs' Encyclopaedia. 


Speak fitly or be silent wisely, 

—George Herbert. 


“ On Fame’s eternal camping ground meet Grant and 
Lee. They met in strife; they parted in kindness; now 
glory guards with solemn round the bivouac of the dead; 
Southerners mourn for Lee, their Christian hero; the nation 
mourns for Grant, who saved the Union. Muffle the drums, 
drape the colors, guard the tent. ‘Soldiers, sleep, thy- war¬ 
fare o’er; sleep the sleep that knows no waking! ’ ” 

—Lines on the death of Grant and Lee. 


What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they 
have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, a^ to be purchased 
at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! 
I know not what course others may take, but, as for me, 
give me liberty, or give me death ! 

—Patrick Henry. 


What is slander? 

’Tis an assassin at the midnight hour; 

Urged on by Envy, that, with footstep soft, 
Steals on the slumber of sweet innocence, 
And, with dark drawn dagger of the mind, 
Drinks deep the crimson current of the heart. 
It is a worm that crawls on beauty’s cheek, 
Like the vile viper in a vale of flowers, 

And riots in ambrosial blossoms there. 

It is a coward in a coat of mail, 

That wages war against the brave and wise, 
And like the long, lean lizard that will mar 
The lion’s sleep, it wounds the noblest breast. 

—Milford Bard — Slander. 


’Tis sweet to remember! I would not forego 
The charms which the past o'er the present can throw. 
For all the gay visions that fancy may weave 
In her web of illusion that shines to deceive. 

’Tis sweet to remember! when storms are abroad, 

To see in the rainbow the promise of God; 

The day may be darkened, but far in the west, 

In Vermillion and gold sinks the sun to his rest: 

With smiles like the morning, he passeth away; 

Thus the beams of delight on the spirit can play, 

When in calm reminiscence we gather the flowers 
Which love scattered round us in happier hours. 

— Willis Gaylord Clark — The Pleasures of Memory. 






Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


241 


That voice of more than Roman eloquence, which urged 
and sustained the Declaration of Independence,—that voice, 
whose first and whose last accents were for his country, is,in¬ 
deed, mute. It will never again rise in defense of the weak 
against popular excitement, and vindicate the majesty of 
law and justice .... The hand, too, which inscribed the 
Declaration of Independence, is, indeed,laid low. The moun¬ 
tain winds sweep by the narrow tomb, and all around has 
the loneliness of desolation. Yes; Adams and Jefferson are 
gone from us forever,—gone, as a sunbeam to revisit its na¬ 
tive skies,—gone, as this mortal to put on immortality. 

— Story—On Jefferson and Adams. 


“ Go out beneath the arched heavens, at night, and 
say, if you can, ‘There is no God!' Pronounce that dreadful 
blasphemy, and each star above you will reproach the 
unbroken darkness of your intellect; every voice that floats 
upon the night winds,* will bewail your utter hopelessness 
and folly! Is there no God? Who, then, unrolled the blue 
scroll, and threw upon its high frontispiece the legible 
gleamings of immortality? Who fashioned this green earth, 
with its perpetual rolling waters, and its wide expanse of 
islands and of main? Who settled the foundations of the 
mountains? Who paved the heavens with clouds, and 
attuned, amid the clamor of storms, the voice of thunders, 
and unchained the lightnings that flash in their gloom? 
There is a God. All nature declares it in a language too 
plain to be misapprehended.” 


Land of the West! though passing brief the record of thine 
age, 

Thou hast a name that darkens all on history’s wide page. 

Let all the blasts of fame ring out,—thine shall be loudest 
far; 

Let others boast their satellites,—thou hast the planet-star. 

Thou hast a name whose characters of light shall ne’er 
depart: 

’Tis stamp’d upon the dullest brain, and warms the coldest 
heart, 

A war-cry fit for any land where freedom’s to be won; 

Land of the West! it stands alone,—it is thy Washington. 

England, my heart is truly thine, my loved, my native earth! 

The land that holds a mother’s grave, and gave that mother 
birth. 

O, keenly sad would be the fate that thrust me from thy 
shore, 

And faltering my breath that sighed,—“Farewell for ever¬ 
more ! ” 




242 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

But did I meet such adverse lot, I would not seek to dwell 
Where olden heroes wrought the deeds for Homer’s song-s 
to tell. 

u Away, thou gallant ship!” I’d cry, u and bear me swiftly 
on; 

But bear me from my own fair land to that of Washington 

—Eliza Cook — Washington. 



I 


V 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of the formation of words as to 
sound, letters, syllables and spelling. 

SOUND. 

An Elementary Sound is a single, indivisible utter¬ 
ance of the voice. There are forty-two elementary 
sounds in the English language, known as Vocals, Sab- 
vocals and Aspirates. 

Vocals are pure, full unobstructed sounds of the 
vocal organs. 

Subvocals are vocals obstructed in the process of 
articulation by the vocal organs. 

Aspirates are forced breath-sounds, articulated by 
the lips, tongue, teeih and palate. 

Subvocals and Aspirates. These may be Libials 
(lip-sounds) , Linguals ( tongue sounds), Linguals-den- 
tals (tongue-teeth-sounds), Linguo-nasals ( tongue-nose 
sounds), Palato nasals ( palate-nose-sounds ), Palatels 
( palate-sounds .) 

Letters. 

Style — Typ e—S iz e . 

Style. Roman. Italics, Script and Old English. 

type.— Great Primer, English, Pica, 

Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, 

Agate, Pearl and IMamead. 

Size. In size, letters are known as Small Letters 
and Capital Letters. 


244 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

Words. 

Pr imitiv e — Derivative—Compoun d. 

A Primitive Word is an original word. 

A Derivative Word is one that has lost its origin¬ 
ality in having other letters affixed. 

A Compound Word is two or more words taken 
together. 

Prefix, is to place before; Suffix, to place after. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology divides words into nine classes, parts of 
speech, viz:- Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Prepositions, Participles, Conjunctions and 
Interjections. 

Nouns. 

common and proper. 

Gender — Person — Number — Case. 

A Common Noun is one of a class; as, boy, girl, city, 
river. 

A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, 
place or thing; as, John, Mary, Chicago, Hudson. 

GENDER. 

Masculine—Feminin e — Common — Neuter. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns as to sex, and 
may be masculine, feminine, common or neuter. 

Masculine Gender denotes males; as, father, uncle, 
king. 

Feminine Gender denotes females; as, mother, aunt, 
sister, queen. 

Common Gender denotes either male or female ; as, 
parent, people, children. 


■4 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia, 


245 


Neuter Gender denotes neither male nor female ; as, 
book, pen, tree. 

PERSON-NUMBER. 

Person is that property of nouns which determines 
the speaker, as in the first person; the person spoken to, 
as in the second person ; and the person spoken of, as 
in the third person. A noun in the predicate is always 
in the third person. 

Number. Nouns are in the singular number or 
plural number according as they indicate unity or plu¬ 
rality. 

CASE. 

J\ r om in ative — Passessive — Objective—A bsolute. 

The Case of nouns and pronouns is determined by 
the relation they bear to oiher words. 

Nominative Case. A noun or pronoun used as 
the subject or predicate of a proposition, is in the nomi¬ 
native case. 

Possessive Case. A noun or pronoun denoting 
possession, is in the possessive case; as, John's horse, 
Harvey's grammar. 

The singular possessive is generally formed by add¬ 
ing 's, to the nominative; as, Frank's, Otho's. The 
plural possessive is generally formed by simply adding 
the apostrophe ’to the nominative; plurals, however, 
not ending in s, take the 's. Add the possessive to the 
last part of a compound word. A series of words with 
a common possesion, take the possessive on the final 
word ; as, Elliot dc Statzman's plant. A series of words 
having a separate possession, take the possessive on 
each term; as, Blaine's and Bryan's orations. Some 
words ending in s, and ce do not form their possessive 


246 


Cumminys' Encyclopedia. 


like the foregoing; as, James ’ book ; Mr. Cummings'' 
library; Conscience ’ sake. 

Objective Case. A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a verb or preposition, is in the objective case. 

Absolute Case. A noun or pronoun used inde¬ 
pendently is in the absolute case. 

Adjectives. 

Descr ip t iv e—Defi n i t iv e. 

descriptive. 

A Descriptive Adjective defines the noun by de¬ 
scribing quality; as, sweet apple, good boy. 

definitive. 

Articles — Pronominals — Numerals. 

A Definitive Adjective defines the noun without 
denoting quality. Definitive adjectives are known as 
articles, pronominal adjectives, and numeral adjectives. 

articles. 

The, is the Definite article; a , and an, the Indefi¬ 
nite articles. 

PRONOMINALS. 

Demonstrative — Distributive — Indefinite. 

Pronominal Adjectives are definite adjectives 
without the article, and are Demonstrative, Distributive 
and Indefinite. 

A Demonstrative Adjective points out objects def¬ 
initely; as, this, that, these, those, etc. 

A Distributive Adjective represents objects taken 
separately; as, each, every, either and neither. 

An Indefinite Adjective does not particularize; as, 
any, all, like, none, more and such. 



Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


247 


NUMERALS. 

C a i' d in a l — Ord in a l—Mu Itiplicative. 

Numeral Adjectives. A Numeral Adjective de¬ 
notes number definitely. There are Cardinal Numerals, 
Ordinal Numerals and Multiplicative Numerals. 

A Cardinal Numeral simply denotes number; as, 
one, two, three, four, jive, etc. 

An Ordinal Numeral denotes the position of ob¬ 
jects; as, first, second, third, etc. 

A Multiplicative Numeral expresses a multiple; 
as, two-fold, three-fold , etc. 

DEGREE. 

Positive — Comparative — Superlative. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective denoting 
degrees of quality. 

The Positive Degree denotes quality without com¬ 
parison ; as, good, beautiful, sweet, pure and kind. 

The Comparative Degree denotes the quality by 
comparison; as, better, sweeter, smaller. 

The Superlative Degree denotes the highest or 
the lowest quality of the adjective; as, poorest, best, 
least, most. 

don’ts. 

1—Don’t use a before vocals. 2—Don’t use an be¬ 
fore subvocals and aspirates. 3—Don’t use a for the, 
nor the for a. 4—Don’t use them as an adjective. 5 — 
Don’t say this here for this. 6—Don’t use double com¬ 
paratives. 7—Don’t use cardinal for ordinal adjectives. 
8—Don’t use adverbs for adjectives. 9—Don’t use ad¬ 
jectives foreign to the meaning. 

errors. 

Correct the following errors, giving the“don’t-num- 
ber:” 


248 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


(a) The most hardest task of all. (b) He is a 
Irishman, (c) An humorous person, is he. (d) Sing 
the three last verses, (e) He is a better lawyer than a 
doctor, (f) There are less ward healers since the cru¬ 
sade. (g) Those are the books them men gave me. 
(h) An eagle is the bird of prey, (i) This apple tastes 
sweetly. 

Pronouns. 

Personal — Possessive — Relative — Interrogative. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and 
agrees with its antecedent in gender, person and num¬ 
ber. The case depends on the construction of the sen¬ 
tence or clause. 

PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

Simple — Compound. 

A Personal Pronoun shows by its form the person 
it represents. 

The Simple Personal Pronoun is represented by I, 
them, he, she and it, together with their declined forms. 

The Compound Personal is formed by adding self 
or selves to the simple personal. 

Possessive Pronouns represent at once the posses¬ 
sion and the objects possessed. They are; his, hers , 
ours, yours, theirs, mine and thine. 

RELATIVE. 

Simple — Compound. 

Relative Pronouns represent their antecedents, and 
are simple relative, and compound relative. 

The Simple Relative is represented by who , which , 
what and that ; who , being used to represent persons, 
which and what, things. As should be used after many 
and same. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


249 


The Compound Relative is a compound of the sim¬ 
ple by adding thereto, ever and soever. 

INTERROGATIVE. 

. The Interrogative Pronoun is represented by who , 
which and what , when used in asking questions. An 
Interrogative Pronoun must agree with its subsequent 
in gender, person and number. 

don’ts. 

1—Don’t forget that Declarative and Interrogative 
sentences take subjects. 2—Don’t forget the possessive 
sign. 3—Don’t use the objective form as the subject or 
predicate. 4—Don’t use “who,” as the object of a 
transitive verb or a preposition. 5 —Don’t use “whom” 
after an intransitive verb. 6—Don’t say your'n , his'n, 
etc., these are improper forms of the possessive. 

errors. 

Correct the following errors, applying the proper 
“don’t-number” : (a) Is it your’n or his’n? (b) Read 
Ivanhoe? (c) Who did you say did it? (d) You and 
him and me will dine together, (e) Whom was it you 
said was there? (f) That is Jelfersons best work. 

Verbs. 

Use — Form. 

USE. 

Transitive — Intransitive—Cop ula tive. 

In Use, verbs are expressive of action, being or 
state, and are transitive, intransitive and copulative. 

A Verb is Transitive when it has an object ; as, 
John reads a book ; The farmer plows the field. 

A Verb is Intransitive when there is no object; as, 
The Sun shines ; Flowers bloom. 


250 


Cummings ’ Encyclopoedia . 


A Verb is Copulative when it joins the subject and 
predicate; as, The apple is sweet. 

FORM. 

Reyulai' — Irregular. 

A Regular Verb is one whose past indicative and 
present participle is formed by adding d or ed to the 
present indicative ; as, love, loved. 

An Irregular Verb ’does not form its past indica¬ 
tive or present participle by the addition of dor ed ; 
as, see, sa w, seen ; go, went, gone. 

Properties of Verbs. 

Vo ic e—M o d e — Te ns e—JSfum bei'—Pers o n. 

VOICE. 

Active—Pass ive. 

Voice is the form of the Transitive verb which rep¬ 
resents its subject as acting or being acted upon. 

The Active Voice represents its subject as perform¬ 
ing an act; as, Mary loves John. 

The Passive Voice represents its subject as being 
acted upon ; as, The snow was shoveled by John. 

mode. 

hid ic ative—S u bj unctiv e—Po ten t ia l — I mp erativ e — 

Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mode indicates a fact; as, The bird 
flies; John cut the wood. 

The Subjunctive Mode expresses doubt, a wish, a 
supposition; as, I wish I were rich. 

The Potential Mode asserts powder, duty and neces 
ity ; as, You may go tiow. 

The Imperative Mode is expressive of command or 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


251 


entreaty; it is akin to the Potential but shows greater 
emphasis of expression. 

The Infinitive Mode expresses an act, being 
or state without affirmation; as, to write , to be. 

TENSE. 

Present — Present-Perfect — Past — Past-Perfect—Future 

— Future-Perfect. 

Present Tense denotes present time; as, I am writ¬ 
ing. 

Present-Perfect Tense denotes past time, but con¬ 
nected with the present; as, I have written the letter. 
The signs of this tense are have and has. 

Past Tense denotes past time ; as, I wrote the letter. 

Past-Perfect Tense denotes time completely past; 
had and should have , are the signs of this tense. 

Future Tense denotes future time; shall and will 
are the signs of this tense. 

Future-Perfect Tense denotes time before the fu¬ 
ture ; the signs of this tense are shall have and will have. 

NUMBER—PERSON. 

The Person and Number of verbs must agree with 
their subjects. A verb used to express a state or an 
act independent of any subject may be termed a Uni¬ 
personal verb; it snows , is an example. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Presen t — Perfect — Compound. 

Participles are derived from verbs, and retain the 
properties of verbs, adjectives and nouns. 

A Present Participle expresses a continuous action; 
as, loving. 

A Perfect Participle expresses a complete act; 
as, seen, appointed. 


252 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


A Compound Participle expresses an act completed 
before the time represented by the verb; as, having 
written the letter, he mailed it. 

Adverbs. 

Tim e — Place — Cause—M a nn e i — Degree. 

An Adverb modifies verbs, participles, adverbs and 
adjectives. 

Adverbs of Time are those that ask time questions; 
as, When? IIow long? 

Adverbs of Place refer to position and ask the 
questions, Where? Whence? 

Adverbs of Cause answer such questions as Why, 
Wherefore ? 

Adverbs of Manner answer such questions as How? 
These adverbs are generally formed by adding to the 
adjective or participle, ly ; as, wisely. 

Adverbs of Degree answer the questions How 
many? How few? Some adverbs may be compared. 
The adverbs When , Where , Why , etc., when used to 
ask questions, are called Adverbs of Interrogation. A 
clause, phrase or sentence, used aaverbally is called an 
Adverbial Phrase, etc. 

Prepositions. 

A Preposition shows the relation between its sub¬ 
ject and some other word. 

Use of Prepositions. Say between two, and among 
more than two. Say at home, not to home. Say boast 
of, not about. Say depend upon, not on. Say differ 
with in opinion, and from in other things. Say at 
church, and not to church. Say boast of not in, his 
strength. Say complied with , not to, the rules. Say 
change for, disapprove of, dissent from, independent of, 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


258 


profit by, swerve from , worthy of. Say die of disease, 
by violence. Take steps. Contract habits. Pursue a 
course. Profess a principle. Employ means. 

Conjunctions. 

Co-ordinate — Subordinate. 

A Conjunction connects words, phrases and sen¬ 
tences. 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction connects elements of the 
same class. 

A Subordinate Conjunction joins elements of a 
different class. 

don’ts. 

1—Don’t express known truths in other than the 
present tense. 2—To express past time, don’t emplqy 
the perfect participle. 3—Don’t use the form of the 
past tense in place of the perfect participle. 4—Don’t 
use the wrong contraction. 5 —Don’t use the contraction if 
the words more fully and clearly convey the meaning. 6— 
Don’t use ain’t or hain’t. 7—Don’t use will for shall , 
nor wtuld for should ; shall is generally used in the first 
person, and will , in the second and third; this order 
should be reversed to express determination or in confess¬ 
ing a fault. 8—Don’t use the wrong passive form. 9— 
Use the subjunctive mode when expressing a doubt, a 
contrary fact, a wish or a future contingency. 10— 
Don’t use an adjective for an adverb. 11—Don’t 
use two negatives in expressing negation. 

ERRORS. 

Correct the following errors, giving the “don't 
number” : (a) The Earth was round, (b) I come to¬ 

day. (c) He don’t know no better, (d) They doesn’t 
know any better, (e) I will recite and Mary shall sing, 


254 


Cummings * Encyclopaedia. 


at the picnic, (f) I shall defend the castle at the risk 
of my life, they will not enter, (g) The evening was 
come, (h) I wish 1 wrns rich, (i) He spoke plain, 
(j) He will never be no better. 

Syntax. 

Sentences — Elements — Rules. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words used togeth¬ 
er to make complete sense. 

SENTENCES IN USE. 

Declarative — Interrogative—Imperative — Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence makes a simple declara¬ 
tion; as, Fishes swim. 

An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a 
question; as, Where do you live? 

An Imperative Sentence expresses a command or 
an entreaty. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in an excla¬ 
mation. 

SENTENCES IN FORM. 

Prin c ipal—Sub or din a te. 

PRINCIPAL. 

Su bj e c t — Predic a t, e — Object. 

The Subject is that of which something is asserted ; 
as, John saws wood. The Predicate expresses wdiat is 
asserted of the subject; as, John saws wood. The Ob¬ 
ject (of transitive verb) is what is asserted of the 
subject; as, John saws wood. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


255 


SUBORDINATE. 

A dj ective — Adverbial — In d ep e n dent. 

An Adjective Sentence modifies the noun or its 
substitute. An Adverbial Sentence modifies verbs, par¬ 
ticiples, adjectives and adverbs. An Independent Sen¬ 
tence makes an independent proposition. Elements, 
like sentences, have their subdivisions and subordinate 
clauses. 

SYNTAX RULES. 

First —The subject of a sentence is in the nomina¬ 
tive case. 

Second —A noun or pronoun in the predicate is in 
the nominative case. 

Third-—T he object of a transitive verb is in the 
objective case. 

Fourth —The object of a preposition is in the ob¬ 
jective case. 

Fifth —Pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in gender, person and number. 

Sixth —A pronoun with two or more singular ante¬ 
cedents connected by and , must be plural. 

Seventh —A pronoun with two or more antecedents 
connected by or or nor, must be singular. 

Eighth —The verb must have the person and num¬ 
ber of its subject. 

Ninth —Two or more singular subjects connected 
by and, must have a plural verb. 

Tenth —Two or more singular subjects connected 
by or or nor, must have a singular verb. 

Eleventh —A noun or pronoun denoting posses¬ 
sion, is in the possessive case. 

Twelfth —An Infinitive may be used as a noun, ex¬ 
cept the possessive. 


250 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Thirteenth —An Infinitive is a noun, pronoun, verb, 
adjective, participle, or an adverb, according to the 
word it limits. 

Fourteenth —Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, 
participles and adverbs. 

Fifteenth —A preposition shows the relation of its 
object to the word which the phrase qualifies. 

Sixteenth —Co-ordinate Conjuntions join similar 
, elements. 

Seventeenth— Subordinate Conjunctions join dis¬ 
similar elements. 

Eighteenth —Interjections are independent of all 
other words. 


SYNTAX EXERCISES. 

Rule One. 

1—Him and me will go—He and I will go. 2—Her 
and him will go—He and she will go. 

Rule Two. 

1—’Tis me—It is I. 2—Who is she?—Whom is 
she? 3—It is her and him—It is he and she. 

Rule Three. 

1—I saw her and he—I saw him and her. 2—I 
gave it to him who I saw at the theatre—I gave it to 
him whom I saw at the theatre. 

Rule Four. 

1—Please divide it between her and I—Please di¬ 
vide it between her and me. 2—He may ride with she 
and I—He may ride with her and me. 

Rule Five. 

1—Let them, the speaker, answer—Let him, the 
the speaker, answer. 



Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 257 

Six. 

1—Ella and Adda, who go to school, have its lesson 

to learn—have their lesson to learn. 2—If John misses 

• 

no words, she may go to the head of its class—he may 
go to the head of his class, (a) The pronoun of an 
antecedent whose plurality is but a series of names for 
the same thing, must not be plural, (b) If the ante¬ 
cedents are entirely separate, the pronoun should be sin¬ 
gular. (c) An antecedent, limited by each, every, or no, 
should have a singular pronoun, (d) When the ante¬ 
cedents convey the idea of unity, they may be followed 
by a singular pronoun. 

Rule Seven. 

If the genders are dissimilar, use different pronouns, 
or change the construction of the sentence. When one 
of the antecedents is singular, place the plural last and 
use a plural pronoun ; as, The father and sons have come 
to look after their interest. 

Rule Eight. 

1—Congress have convened—Congress has conven¬ 
ed. 2—You and I was there—You and I were there. 

Rule Nine. 

When the subjects are of different number, the verb 
properly agrees with the first; as, John and all the cat¬ 
tle is coming home. 

Rule Ten. 

1 —Have Ella or Mary come home?—Has Ella or 
Mary come home? 2—In the use of or or nor, when 
the subjects are of different person or number, the verb 
must agree with the nearest; as, Neither John nor I am 
the one. 



258 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

Buie Fourteenth. 

1—The colonel looked handsomely—The colonel 
looked handsome. 2 —He looks poorly, he must feel bad 
—He does not look well, he must feel badly. 

3—It is thought that he generally stands well in 
the commercial world—It is generally thought that he 
stands well in the commercial world. Place the adverbs 
where they will express the most. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written language 
into sentences and parts of sentences by the use of cer¬ 
tain marks. These marks are: Comma (,), Semicolon 
(;), Colon (:), Period (.), Interrogation (?), Exclama¬ 
tion (!), Dash (—), Quotation (“ ”), Curves, Brackets, 
Asterisk, Abelisk, Sectum, Brace, etc. 

COMMA. 

A Comma denotes the slightest pause. Use the 
comma: 1 —To divide a complete subject from its predi¬ 
cate. 2 —Divide a clause subject ending with a verb, 
from its predicate, by a comma. 3—Most subordinate 
phrases should be preceded by a comma. 4—Transposed 
words should be set off by commas. 5 —Most parenthet¬ 
ical expressions should be followed by commas. 6—A 
comma should take the place of a repeated verb. 7— 
Short compound sentences or parts of sentences connected 
by conjunctions, should be separated by commas. 8— 
Correlative clauses, when not joined by as or than , should 
be separated by commas. 9 —Words in pairs should 
have a comma between each couplet. 10 —Each term of 
a series of words should be followed by a comma. 11— 
Words separated by emphasis should be set off by 
commas. 12 —Always use a comma when necessary to 
express clear meaning. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


25Q 


SEMICOLON. 

A Semicolon marks pauses greater than those marked 
by commas. 1—Use a Semicolon before as, namely, to- 
wit, viz., when used to introduce an example or an 
illustration. 2—A Semicolon may be used to supply the 
connection between compound sentences, and between 
long compound sentences when the connection is used. 
8—Successive clauses having like dependence should be 
separated by semicolons. 

COLONS. 

A Colon denotes a greater pause than a semicolon. 
Use a Colon after a formal introduction of a discussion; 
a lengthy quotation; an enumeration of particulars, and 
an explanatory remark. 

PERIOD. 

A Period marks a full stop and should be used after 
sentences and abbreviations. 

INTERROGATION. 

An interrogation denotes a question and should 
follow an interrogative sentence. 

The Dash may be used to supply the parenthetical 
mark : the break in a word or sentence. Curves are used 
to enclose a parenthetical expression. Quotation Marks 
show that what they enclose are words taktn from some 
other author. The Exclamation, should be placed after 
an exclamatory expression. The Caret points to the word 
omitted and indicates its insertion above. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

The following rules cover, sufficiently, the question of 
Capitalization: 1—First word of every sentence. 2— 
The word following an introductory word; ae, Besolved. 


260 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


8—The first word of a direct quotation. 4—The first 
word of every line of poetry. 5—All proper names and 
words derived therefrom; as, Spanish, English, etc. 6— 
Titles of honor and distinction. 7—Names personified, 
and names of especially important things. 8—All ap- 
pelations of the Deity. 9—Most scientific names. 10— 
The pronoun I and interjection O. 11—Days of the 
week and months of the year. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of syllables, accent and verse com¬ 
position. 

Verse is a metrical arrangement of accented and 
unaccented syllables. This discourse so arranged is 
called poetry. 

Prose is a written discourse regardless of meter and 
rhyme. 

Meter is a measurement of accented and unaccented 
syllables. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound in the closing sylla¬ 
bles of lines of poetry closely succeeding each other. 

Blank Verge is one without rhyme. 

A Stanza is a division of a poem consisting of a 
group of lines. 

A Foot is a part of a line determined by the accent. 
The feet of English poetry are: Iambus , Trochee, Spon¬ 
dee, Pyrrhic, Anapest, Dactyl, Amphibrach. An Iambus 
Foot consists of an unaccented syllable followed by an 
accented syllable. The Trochee Foot is the reverse order 
of the Iambus. The Spondee Foot consist's of two ac¬ 
cented syllables. The Pyrrhic Foot consists of two 
unaccented syllables. The Anapest Foot consists of two 
unaccented syllables followed by one accented syllable. 

The Dactyl Foot is the preceding order reversed. The 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


261 


Amphibrach Foot consists of an unaccented ,an accented, 
and an unaccented syllable, respectively. 

Poetic License is the privilege accorded poets, of 
using peculiar words common to poetry. 


Commercial Law and Business 

Paper. 

CONTRACTS. 

Verbal — Written . 

A contract is a verbal or written agreement, upon a 
sufficient consideration, between two or more parties to 
do or not to do a certain thing. 

Elements. 

Pr inc ip a l —5 econdary. 

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

Parties—Subject Matter—Mutual Assent —- Time — Con¬ 
sideration. 

The Principal Elements of a contract are those 
elements that are indispensable to the simplest contract; 
(1) there must be two or more competent parties ; (2) 
there must be a subject matter , something to be done or 
not to be done; (3) there must be a consideration ; (4) 
there must be a meeting of minds, a mutual assent ; (5) 
there should be a time, either fixed or understood. 

The secondary elements are those elements that 
add to, change, or modify the principal elements; they 
are special features of a contract. 

infant’s contracts. 

Infant’s Contracts are not void but voidable; they 
do not bind the infant, but bind the other party. An 

sea 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


261 


infant, or minor cannot escape a contract for necessaries 
or an enlistment in the military or naval service of his 
country, and if he wishes to repudiate a contract, he 
must return the consideration. 

INCOMPETENCY. 

Minority — Insanity — Idiocy — Intoxication — Coverture. 

Minority, which has been treated above, Idiocy, 
Insanity, Intoxication and Coverture, are the conditions 
of incompetency. An Idiot has no mind ; insanity de¬ 
stroys the mind by disease; intoxication is insanity 
bordering on idiocy; man in these conditions is incom¬ 
petent to reason, therefore incompetent to contract. 
Coverture or marriage takes from woman the ability to 
contract; this right is no longer denied women in 
many of the States ; in fact the rule has now become 
the exception. 

CONSIDERATION. 

Valuable — Good — Insufficient. 

The consideration is that for which the parties en¬ 
ter into the agreement. Payment of money, the deliv¬ 
ery of property, and the performance of work, are consid¬ 
ered Valuable considerations. A gift through love and 
friendship, is a good consideration. An unjust but val¬ 
id consideration, is an insufficient consideration; as, A, 
works in the field of B, with his knowledge; if permitted 
to work without a protest, he will be able to collect his 
wages; that would be an insufficient consideration; the 
obligation to pay for such services applies only to indi¬ 
viduals. 

S UBJECT-MATTER-MUTUAL ASSENT-TIME. 

The Subject-matter of a contract is that for which 
the consideration is paid; the thing to be done or omit- 


264 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


ted to be done. The subject-matter must come within 
the law or the contract cannot stand. Mutual assent, 
is the agreement of the parties as to all the terms of the 
contract; “meeting of minds.” Time is understood to 
mean the period covered by the contract. The time is 
either expressed or understood; when not expressed, it 
is understood to mean a reasonable period for the per¬ 
formance of the obligation. 

KINDS OF CONTRACTS. 

Expressed — Implied — Executed — Executory — Joint — 
Several — Written — Verbal. 

Expressed. An expressed contract is one in which 
the terms of the agreement are fully and positively stated. 

Implied. An implied contract exists in certain 
cases where an obligation is created by law for the purpose 
of setting the parties right. 

Executed. This is a contract where the obligation 
is performed. 

Executory. This contract expresses or implies fu¬ 
ture execution. 

Written and Verbal. A written contract is one in 
which the terms of the agreement are in writing. A 
verbal contract is a verbal understanding as to the 

i 

terms of agreement. The written contract is by far the 
more preferable; it requires no proof of its terms. 

Joint. A joint contract is one in which the parties 
agree to a joint performance of the obligation. 

Several. A several contract, is one in which the 
parties, each for himself, agrees to perform the obliga¬ 
tion. 

Contracts in Writing. Contracts for the convey¬ 
ance of real estate; contracts for rent for a period of 
more than three years ; contracts upon a consi deration 


Cummings' Mncyclopcedia. 


265 


of marriage, and contracts providing for the payment 
of another’s debts, for a sum of $20 and upwards, must 
be in writing. 


SALE OF PERSONAL PROPERTY. 

A sale is a contract by which one party exchanges 
goods for money; exchanging goods for goods, is trading 
or bartering. One may sell an expected property, as crops 
or fruit not yet grown. The delivery of the goods depends 
on the condition of the sale. Sale by sample is a good 
and sufficient sale, provided the goods when delivered 
are similar to the sample. No title may pass for stolen 
goods; the owner can recover them wherever he finds 
them. Sale of personal property for amounts of fifty 
dollars and upward, in most of the states, is void, unless 
the buyer shall accept part of the goods; or shall have 
paid part of the purchase price; or unless there is some 
effective agreement in writing. 

AGENCY. 

An agent is one who acts in the capacity of his 
principal; in his name, for him, and by his authority. 
The law grants the business man the right to deputize 
another to do all things that he might do himself, and 
holds him accountable for the acts of the deputy, pro¬ 
vided the deputy acts within the bounds of the authority 
with which he is clothed. 1—The principal, and not the 
agent, is liable in damage to the third party. 2—An 
innocent third party may have action against the princi¬ 
pal, even though the agent has acted outside his author¬ 
ity. 3—An agent having the authority to sign his 
principal’s name, should first sign the name of the prin¬ 
cipal and then his own. 


266 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

Partnership. 

Common — Limited. 

Common Partnership. 

Articles of Co-partnership consist of a contract 
between two or more persons to transact business. There 
may be Ostensible partners, Nominal partners, and 
Secret partners. 

Ostensible. Ostensible partners are those whose 
names are known to the public, and who share in all the 
affairs of the business. 

Nominal. Nominal partners are those who lend 
their names and credit to the business; they have no 
interest in the concern, but the fact of their names 
being held out as partners, makes them liable for the 
debts of the firm. 

Secret. Secret partners are full partners, who, for 
reasons known to themselves, conceal their identity 
with the affairs of their firm. 

Rigiits, duties and liabilities. The rights and 
duties of the partners are generally defined in written 
agreements. Flagrant violations of the rights and 
duties of the company, by a partner, subjects the 
offender to damages. Each partner is liable to an out¬ 
sider for the full amount of the firm’s debts. The part¬ 
nership is bound by the acts of its members. Debts 
contracted by a partner in the name of the firm, bind 
the firm. Private agreements between partners cannot 
affect outsiders. The act of a partner, which is not in a 
line with the firm’s business, cannot bind the firm. 

Limited Partnership. 

4 

A limited partnership is one in w T hich the partners 
invest a limited capital. The articles of agreement of 
a limited partnership must be recorded and properly 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 267 

advertised. In a limited partnership the partners are 
liable for the amount of their subscribed capital only. 
Public notice must be given of dissolution. In Penn¬ 
sylvania the articles of co-partnership must set forth 
the place of business and its contemplated duration; 
whether or not the subscribed stock has been paid in, 
and the word “limited” must be written or printed legi¬ 
bly upon all places of business of the firm, and upon all 
letters, bills, etc. 

Common Carrier. 

Common Carrier of Merchandise. A common car¬ 
rier is one who, as a regular business, and for a consid¬ 
eration, transports merchandise or people. A common 
carrier may demand payment in advance. A carrier’s 
responsibility begins when the goods are delivered into 
his possession. 

Common Carrier of Persons. Common carriers are 
not insurers of the person of the passenger in the same 
sense that they are of his baggage ; the baggage is entirely 
in control of the carrier, while the person of the passen¬ 
ger is not; should the passenger receive an injury while 
on the train, through his own carelessness, or through 
the carelessness of the company, if he contributes to 
such carelessness, he could not recover. A passenger is 
one who is legally on the train, and not an employee; 
the company is bound to furnish safe transportation to 
all passengers. 

Innkeeper and Guest. 

Innkeeper. An innkeeper is anyone ’whose business 
it is to furnish lodging to the traveler. 

Guest. A traveler, as here meant, is one who stops 
at an inn and pays for his lodging; a visitor is not a 
guest; a traveler is. 


208 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


Liability of the Parties. An innkeeper is respon¬ 
sible for his guest’s baggage, but can hold it for his 
lodging. A, left his horse at one hotel and stopped at 
another, and was held to be a guest of both hotels. An 
innkeeper has a lien on a horse for its keep, but not upon 
the horse for its owner’s lodging. 

Conveyancing. 

Deeds. A deed is a written contract for the convey¬ 
ance of real estate. To insure safety in title a deed 
should be recorded as soon as executed and delivered. 
Most states require that a deed be acknowledged before 
it can be recorded. Many states require that all deeds 
be recorded within a certain time after their execution, 
to guarantee protection as against a subsequent purcha¬ 
ser. In Pennsylvania this period is ninety days. 

General Warranty. A general warranty or full 
covenant deed is an insurance of title by the grantor 
against all persons. 

Special Warranty. A special warranty insures the 
grantee against any person claiming by, through or 
under the grantor. 

A Quitclaim. A quitclaim deed is one given for an 
undivided interest; it does not warrant. 

Mortgage. A mortgage, dead pledge, is a kind of 
deed, given to secure payment of debt for purchase 
money or for money loaned. In many states there are 
“chattel mortgages,” these are in no sense deeds; they 
are loans on personal property. 

Will. 

written-NUNCUPATIVE-CODICIL. 

A Will is the legal declaration of one’s intentions 
willed to be performed after death. A will, whether 


Cumm ijiffs' Encyclopaedia. 


269 


written or verbal, requires prooving; needs to be pro¬ 
bated before it is valid. 

A Written Will is one in which the declarations 
are committed to writing. 

A Verbal or Nuncupative Will depends merely 
upon oral evidence, being declared by the testator in 
extremis , or apprehensive of death, before sufficient num¬ 
ber of witnesses, and afterwards reduced to writing. 
In Pennsylvania a verbal will must be made during the 
last sickness of the testator, and in the house of his 
habitation or dwelling, or where he has resided for the 
space of ten days or more, next before the making of 
6uch will, except where such person has been surprised 
by sickness, being from his own house, and shall die 
before returning thereto. Personal property alone 
passes by a nuncupative will. 

A Codicil is a supplement to a will, or an addition 
made by the testator, and annexed to, and to be taken 
as part of a testament; being for its explanation or 
alteration, or to make some addition to, or some sub¬ 
traction from the former disposition of the testator. It 
may be either written or nuncupative. 

Negotiable Paper. 

A negotiable paper is one that may be transferred 
by delivery or endorsement from one party to another 
for a valuable consideration. Checks, Drafts , Notes , 
Bonds, Certifcates of Deposit, Bills of Credit, etc., may 
be made negotiable. 

Bearer or Order. The words bearer or order are 
the usual signs of negotiability, but other words ex¬ 
pressing negotiability may be used. When payable to 
bearer, a paper is transferable without endorsement; 
when payable to order, it requires the payee’s endorse¬ 
ment to make it negotiable. 


2T0 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 
Promissory Notes. 


INDIVIDUAL—JOINT—JOINT AND SEVERAL. 

Promissory Note. A promissory note is an abso¬ 
lute promise to pay a certain sum, named in writing, 
signed but not sealed. 

Individual. An individual note is one bearing the 
words “I promise to pay,” signed by one. 

Joint. A note bearing the words, “We promise to 
pay,” and signed by more than one, is a joint note. 

Joint and Several. A note bearing the words, 
“We, or either of us,promise to pay,” and signed by more 
than one, is a joint and several note. 

Endorsement. 

An Endorsement, as it is generally and commonly 
accepted, is the writing of one’s name on the back of a 
negotiable paper with or without qualification. 

Blank. A blank endorsement is simply the writ¬ 
ing of the name on the back of the paper, as; “W. E. 
Ritter.” 

Special or full. An endorsement in full men¬ 
tions the name of the person in whose favor it is made, 
as; “Pay to John Heileman, or order, M. J. Dunbar.” 

Qualified. A qualified endorsement is one in 
which the endorser limits his responsibility, as; “Pay to 
Otho N. Miller, or order; without recourse, Frank P. 
Cummings.” 

Limited. A limited endorsement is one in which 
the payment is confined to one particular person, as; 
“Pay to G. B. Metzger, only, Dan. Mack.” 

Demand. A promissory note must be presented to 
the maker, when due, or at the place designated for pay¬ 
ment, otherwise the endorser will be released. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


271 


Bank Note. A bank note is a note payable at a 
bank named, and is protested if not paid when due, so 
as to hold the endorser. Protest is notice to the endorser 
of non payment by the maker. 

Due Bill. A due bill or I. O. U., is a written ac¬ 
knowledgment of debt; it will draw interest, but is not 
strictly negotiable. 

Suit. In a suit at law on a “joint” promissory note, 
to hold any, all must be joined as defendants. On a 
joint and several note, any or all may be joined. 

A Draft and Check. A draft is an order for the 
payment of money addressed by a person to his banker 
and is due when accepted; a check, is similar to a draft 
except that it is due when endorsed, and is payable on 
presentation, provided the maker has money on deposit 
in the bank upon which the check is drawn. Conditions 
may exist, however, by which the money on deposit is 
not subject to check. 

Loss. A bank must suffer the loss of a forged 
check; also the surplus amount of a raised check. 

Commercial and Business Paper. 

Sight Draft. 

$300. Rochester, Jan. 3, 1898. 

At sight pay to Henry McGoughran or order, 
Three Hundred Dollars, value received, and charge to 
my account. Henry Sanders. 

To T. Derrick, Elmira, N. Y. 

Time Draft. 

$100. New Dorp, N. Y. Jan. 3, 1898. 

At thirty days sight pay to A. H. McGarren, 
or order, One Hundred Dollars, value received, and 
charge to account of J. F. MacRae. 

To W. H. Brock, 

Brooklyn. 


272 

Cummings' 1 Encyclopaedia. 

$1,000. 

Promissory Notes. 

( With interest). 

Williamsport, Pa., Dec. 24, 1897. 
One year after date I promise to pay to 


Hugh Fauhgnan, or order, One Thousand Dollars, valu 
received, with interest. 

H. S. Whiteman, Jr. 


$800. 

( Without interest). 

Williamsport, Pa., Jan. 3, 1898. 
Six months after date I promise to pay John 


J. Noon, or order, Eight Hundred Dollars, - value re- 


ceived. 

John Heileman. 

(Joint Note). 

$224.24 

Williamsport, Pa., Jan. 3, 1898. 


Four years after date we promise to pay 
John E. Kane, or order, Two Hundred and twenty-four 
and 24-100 Dollars, value received, with interest. 

John R. Condon. 


$2,000. 

Henry Cochran. 
(Joint and Several). 

Williamsport, Pa., Jan. 3, 1898. 

One year after date (I, we or either of us) 


promise to pay T. J. Mullen, or order, One Thousand 
Dollars, value received, with interest. 

James McGougran. 


$10,000. 

J. F. Frain. 

(Negotiable). 

Ralston, Pa., Feb., 28, 1898. 


One year after date I promise to pay to 
W. H. Kiess, or order, Ten Thousand Dollars, value re¬ 
ceived, with interest. 


Thomas Hammond. 


27 n 


Cummings' Encyclopcedia. 


(Non Negotiable.) 


Williamsport, Pa., Tan. 8, 1898. 

$4,000. 

One year after date I promise to pay to 
Dr. George M. Cummings, Four Thousand Dollars, value 
received, with interest. 

Harry Ginter. 

By the provisions of the Act of Congress, known as 
the War Revenue Act, it is provided, that on and after 
the 1st day of July 1898, revenue stamps must be af¬ 
fixed to all negotiable instruments, by the makers there¬ 
of, as follows: 

A two cent revenue stamp must be placed on “any 
bank cheek or draft which is for the payment of any 
sum of money drawn upon or issued by any Bank, 
Trust Company, or any person or persons, companies or 
corporation at sight or on demand.” Promissory Notes 
require a 2 cent revenue stamp per $100. or fractional 
part thereof. 

The person using or affixing the stamp must write 
or stamp his initials on the same and the date on 
which it was affixed, so that it may not again be used. 

Penalty for failure to comply with the law—One 
Hundred Dollars. 


Receipts. 


(In full of Account.) 


Williamsport, Pa., Jan. 8, 1898. 


$240. 


Received of N. M. Edwards, Two Hun- 
and Forty Dollars, in full of account. 


Chas. Lose. 


274 


Cummings 1 Encyclopaedia. 
(Due Bill.) 


,$ 100 . 


Williamsport, Pa., Jan. 3, 1898. 
Due George Gesler One Hundred Dollars 
on labor account. 


John M. Wilson. 


I 


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. 

GREECE. 

Homer (B. C. 88), Poet; author of the Iliad and 
Odyssey , and a mock epic, The Frogs and Mice. 

Herodotus (B. C. 484), historian of Persian birth 
and Grecian education. Herodotus traveled extensively 
in the Orient and wrote up its history; he is styled 
“The father of history.” 

Socrates (B. C. 409-809), Greece’ first great teacher 
and philosopher. His teaching rather attacked Mythol¬ 
ogy, in doubting the divinity of the gods. For this he 
was condemned to die ; compelled to drink the cup of 
hemlock. 

Plato (B. C. 429-347), a worthy disciple of Socrates; 
also a great teacher and philosopher. 

Aristotle (B. C. 384-322), author of Deductive 
Philosophy. Among his works are found; Art of Rhet¬ 
oric^ A Physical Discourse , Youth and Old Age , The 
Soul , etc. 

Demosthenes (B. C. 381-322), Grecian orator and 
statesman who by his eloquence won and received the 
title of “The Olympiad.” 

Plotarch (A. D. 45-120),statesman and biographer ; 
author of The Lives of Illustrious Men. 

ITALY. 

Cincinnatus (B. C. 519), a Roman nobleman who 
was twice called from the quiet of rustic life to the 
Dictatorship of Rome. 


276 


276 


Cummings' Encyctopcedia . 


Horace (B. C. 65-8), author of Epistles and Odes . 

Virgil (B. C. 70-19), author of uEneid, Eclogues, 
and the Georgies. The English translations of Virgil’s 
and Horace’s works are deservedly popular. 

Dante (A. D. 1265-1820), poet; author of Vita 
Nuova (a story of his love for Beatrice), etc. 

Michael Angelo (A. D. 1475-1564), distinguished 
sculptor and painter; architect of St. Peters, Rome. 

Sanzio Raphael (1488-1520), painter of sacred 
pictures. His most celebrated work is the decorations 
on the walls of the Vatican. The Foilingo Madonna, 
Garvagh Madonna,The Resurrection of Lazarus, and The 
Transfiguration, are some of his masterpieces. 

Galileo (1564-1642), distinguished astronomer; 
author of The System of the World and inventor of The 
Telescope. 

Rossini (1792-1865), author of operatic music; 
William Tell, The Barber of Seville and Stabat Mater . 

GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 

Bismarck. Prince Bismarck was, until the reign of 
the present king began, Premier of the German Empire. 
He proved his ability as statesman in the unification 
and building up of his country. Bismarck was born 1815, 
and died July 30, 1898. 

Humbolt (1769-1859), distinguished naturalist; 
author of the The Kosmos , etc. 

Mozart (1756-1791), celebrated musician ; author of 
Don Giovanni, Lucio Silla, Idomeneo, etc, operatic 
music. His full name was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. 

Beethoven, Ludwig Von (1770-1827), celebrated 
musician and composer; his most celebrated work is 
The Mount of Olives, an oratorio. 

Pestalozzi ( 1740-1827 ), German-Swiss, great 
teacher; author of How Gertrude Teaches her School, 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


277 


Froebel (1782-1852), student of Pestalozzi; author 
of The Kindergarten System of Teaching, and The Ed¬ 
ucation of Man.. 

Kepler (1585-1(579), author of The Three Laws, a 
work on Mathematical Astronomy. 

William Tell, celebrated in story as The True Arch¬ 
er. Tell’s activity for his native Switzerland against Ges- 
ler of Austria, is placed by some at the beginning of the 
fourteenth, and by others at the beginning of the fif¬ 
teenth century. 

FRANCE. 

Rabelais, Francois (1483-1553),. physician and 
humorist author. 

Poussin (1594-1655), celebrated painter; the best of 
his pieces being The Last Supper. 

Descartes, Rene (1596-1650), distinguished philos¬ 
opher and mathematician ; author of Discourse of Meth¬ 
ods, Principles of Philosophy , The World , etc. 

Ney, Michel (1769-1815), Napoleon’s gallant mar¬ 
shal; commanded the “Old Guard” at Waterloo. He 
was arrested and convicted of high treason, and shot 
in the garden of Luxembourg. 

MacMahon (1808-1894), distinguished marshal of 
France; president 1878-77. He was “The Grand Old 
Man of France.” 

Theirs, Louis Adolphe (1797-1877), “liberator of 
the territory,” first president of France; author of The 
Consulate and the Empire , and other historical works. 

La Fayette De, (Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves 
Gilbert Motier), born in Auvergne, France, 1757, and 
died at Paris, May 20, 1834. He endeared himself to the 
American heart by the assistance rendered Washington, 
in the war for American freedom. Among the other 
Frenchmen who helped in the cause of American freedom, 


278 


Cummings ’ Encyclopcedia. 


were ; Rochambeau, D’Estang and De Kalb. The gallant 
De Kalb fell pierced by eleven wounds at the battle of 
Camden, while attempting to wrest victory from defeat 
when Gates had fled. The people of the United States 
will dedicate a magnificent monument to LaFayette 
during the Paris Exposition, 1900. 

La Fontaine, Jean De (1621-1095), poet, born in 
Chauteau Thierry, in Champagne; author of the Contes 
and Fables , etc. 

Moitier (1622-1673) author or Le Misanthrope, and 
other dramas. 

Racene (1639-1699), author of Phedre and Iphi- 
genie, dramas. 

Cuvier (1769-1831, naturalist; author of The An¬ 
imal Kingdom , etc. 

Comte (1798-1857), author of Positive Philosophy. 

Guizot (1787-1875), author of a History of Civili¬ 
zation in Europe. 

Hugo, Victor Marie, born at Bescancon, Feb. 26, 
1802, died May 22, 1885. Hugo is the Shakespeare of 
French Literature; author of Les Miserables, etc. 

Du Maurier, George, artist and novelist; although 
now dead, his fame was builded upon genius, and is 
lasting; author of Trilby ; born in Paris, 1834 ; famous as 
the cartoonist of the London Punch. 

Zola, Emile, who was sentenced, Feb. 24, 1898, to 
one year imprisonment, for slandering the French Army, 
was born in Paris, April 2, 1840. Zola is a writer of 
‘ off-color” novels, that have little merit and much less 
morals; a half-crazed revolutionist who rests his fame 
upon the abuse of all who differ with him. His defense 
of Dreyfus is looked upon throughout France as a 
clever but selfish move to advertise himself. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 279 

ENGLAND—IRELAND—SCOTLAND. 

Gladstone, William E., author and statesman; has 
been treated in other departments; See Literature, and 
English and Irish History. Gladstone was born 1809, 
and died May 19, 1898. He was the greatest statesman 
of Europe. 

O’Connell and Emmett, for the biography of Daniel 
O’Connell and Robert Emmet, see Irish History. 

Hastings, Warren (1732-1818), first English Gov¬ 
ernor of the East Indies; celebrated for his trial for 
“ high crimes and misdemeanors,” known as the “im¬ 
peachment trial,” in which he w T as acquitted. 

Watt, James (1736-1819), Scotland’s famous in¬ 
ventor of the Steam Engine. 

Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (1763-1798), Ireland’s 
hero of 1798. He was arrested and cast into prison 
where he died. 

Wellington (1769-1852). Arthur Wellesley, Duke 
of Wellington, came into prominence in the defeat of 
Napoleon at Waterloo. He afterwards served with dis¬ 
tinction as Premier of England. Wellington was a 
brave warrior and able statesman. 

Franklin, Sir John (1786-1847), noted for his Arc¬ 
tic explorations, which gave to the world of science 
much valuable information. 

Livingstone, David (1813-1873), made extensive 
explorations in Africa; discovered the river which bears 
his name. He was born at Lanarkshire, Scotland. 

Bruce, Robert, defeated the English at the cele¬ 
brated battle of Bannockburn, June 14, 1314; secured 
Scotland’s independence, and was crowned king. His 
reign continued until 1329. 

Sarsfield, Patrick, than whom there is no grander 


280 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


character in all history, yielded his beloved Ireland at 
the siege of Limerick. General Sarsfield went to France 
where he did noble service in the French wars. He was 
fatally wounded at the Battle of Landen , and died a 
few days later, 1693. 

Bright, John (1811-1889), English statesman, dis¬ 
tinguished as the opponent of the corn-law; colleague of 
Gladstone, but broke with him on the Home Rule issue. 

Pitt, William (1759-1806), prime minister under 
George III, and ever that tyrant’s pliant tool. 

North, Lord Frederick, (1732-1792), Earl of Gul- 
ford. He was prime minister of England during the 
American Revolution. 

Harvey, William (1578-1657), celebrated physician ; 
discovered the circulation of the blood. 

Grattan, Henry (1746-1820), distinguished Irish 
parliamentarian; fought the union with England to the 
last. 

SPAIN—PORTUGAL—HOLLAND—AUSTRIA. 

Cervantes, Miguel De (1547-1616), distinguished 
Spanish writer; author of Don Quixote, Pericles Sigis- 
munda, etc. 

Murillo, Bartolome Esterban (1617-1682), “The 
divine painter of Seville, Spain.” Among his master¬ 
pieces are Moses Striking the Rock, Mystery of the Im¬ 
maculate Conception , and Espousal of St. Catherine. 

Camoens (1524-1579), a Portuguese poet of ability; 
author of Luciad. 

Rubens, Peter Paul (1577-1640), the great Flemish 
artist; has produced the finest of paintings; as, Descent 
from the Cross, The Last Judgment, The Crowning with 
Thorns, Assumption of the Virgin, The Massacre of the 
Innocents, etc. 


Oummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


281 


Haydn (1732-1809), celebrated musician of Austria ; 
father of orchestral music; author of The Creation , an 
oratorio. 


AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY. 


BIOGRAPHY OF THE PRESIDENTS. 

George Washington. 

Born in Westmoreland County. Va., February 22nd, 
1732 (see U, S. History). He was unanimously elected 
President, and was inaugurated in New York City, 
April 30th, 1787. He served two terms and refused a 
third. While out riding on his plantation in inclement 
weather, he contracted a severe cold from which he died, 
December 12, 1799. Of him the writer has well said, 
“First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of 
his countrymen.” 

“The first,the noblest, the best; 

The Cincinnatus of the West.” 

John Adams. 

Second President. 

Born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19th, 
1735; was the first minister at the Court of St. James, 
under Washington. Inaugurated 1797, served one term ; 
died July 4th, 1826. His last words were, “Jefferson 
still lives,” but Jefferson had died two hours before. See 
Literature. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Third President. 

Born in Albermarle County, Va., April 2nd, 1743. 
From his pen came that great document. The Declara¬ 
tion of Independence. He was inaugurated 1801; was 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


283 


re-elected and served two terms. He died on the same 
day with Adams, July 4th, 1826. See History and 
Literature. 

James Madison. 

Fourth President. 

Born at “Montpelier,” Orange County, Va., March 
16th, 1751. He was Secretary of State for Jefferson. 
His inauguration took place 1809; he served two terms. 
To his firm, patriotic and able administration, no less 
than the gallant American soldiery, was due the second 
crushing defeat of England in the war of 1812. He 
died January 28, 1836. See History. 

James Monroe. 

Fifth President. 

Born in Westmoreland County, Va., April 28th, 
1758; fought in the Revolution; studied law with Jef¬ 
ferson; Minister to France under Washington; Secretary 
of war under Madison. Inaugurated President 1817, 
serving two terms; promulgated the “Monroe Doc¬ 
trine.” He died July 4th, 1831. See History. 

John Quincy Adams. 

Sixth President. 

Born at Braintree, Massachusetts, July 11th, 1767. 
He was a son of John Adams. Inaugurated President 
1824, and served one term. Adams was subsequently 
elected to Congress, and while addressing the speaker, 
on February 21st, 1848, received a stroke of paralysis, 
and died in the rotunda of the capitol. His last words 
were, “This is the last of earth ; 1 am content.” See 
History. 


284 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

Andrew Jackson. 

8even th Presiden t. 

Born in a log cabin in North Carolina, March 15th, 
1767. He became a great general; defeated the English 
under Packenham at New Orleans; was elected president 
1829, serving two terms. He died at the “Hermitage,” 
his Nashville home, June 8th, 1845. See History. 

Martin Van Buren. 

Eighth President. 

Born at Kinderhook, N. Y., Dec. 5th, 1782: elected 
United States Senator 1821; re-elected 1827 ; Governor 
of New York, 1828; Secretary of State, and minister 
to the Court of St. James under Jackson. He' was in¬ 
augurated President 1887, serving one term. He died 
from an attack of acute asthma, July 24th, 1852. See 
History. 

William Henry Harrison. 

Ninth President. 

Born at Berkeley, Va., February 9th, 1773. Won 
fame in his defeat of Tecumseh at Tippecanoe, and 
again in the balance of the war of 1812. He was elected 
president 1841. He surrounded himself with a strong 
cabinet with Webster at its head, but was cut off in 
one month by pleurisy. *See History. 

John Tyler. 

Tenth President. 

Born in Charles County, Va., March 29, 1790. He 
assumed the duties of President at Harrison’s death, and 
served out the term. He died January 17th, 1862. Se* 
History. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 285 

James K. Polk. 

Eleventh President. 

Born in Mecklenburg, County, N. C., November 
2nd, 1795. He was inaugurated President 1845, and 
served for one term with distinguished ability. He died 
of cholera at his Nashville home, June I5th, 1849. See 
History. 

Zachary Taylor. 

Twelfth President. 

Born in Orange County, Va., November 24th, 1784. 
General Taylor won distinction in the war with Mexico; 
was inaugurated President, 1849, and died July 9th, 
1850. See History. 

Millard Fillmore. 

Th ir tee nth President. 

Born at Summer Hill, Cayuga County, N. Y., Jan¬ 
uary 7th. 1800. He assumed the Presidency on the 
death of Taylor. He died at Buffalo, N. Y., March 8, 
1874. See History. 

Franklin Pierce 
Fourteen th Presiden t. 

Born at Hillsboro, N. H., November 23, 1804. 
elected to the United States Senate 1837, from his native 
state; Attorney-General under Polk; General in the 
Mexican War. He was inaugurated President, 1854, 
serving one term. He died of dropsy, October 8th, 18G9. 
See History. 

James Buchanan. 

Fiftee nth President. 

Born in Franklin County, Pa., April 23rd, 1791. In 
Congress 1820-30; Minister to Russia 1830-33; U. S. 


286 


Citmmirigs' Encyclopaedia. 


Senate, 1838; inaugurated President 1857, serving one 
term. He died June 1st, 1868. See History. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

Sixteenth President. 

Born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. He entered 
Congress 1847 and was elected and inaugurated Pres¬ 
ident 1861. Lincoln was re-elected, and on April 14th, 
1865, was assassinated. He was a great, good man and 
the nation’s loss was the world’s as well. See History. 

Andrew Johnson. 

Seventeenth President. 

Born at Raleigh, N. C., December 29th, 1808. Gov. 
ernor of Tennessee, 1853-57; entered the U. S. Senate 
1857, appointed war-governor of Tennessee, by Lincoln; 
elected Vice President on Lincoln’s second election; 
assumed the Presidency at Lincoln’s assassination, and 
served out the term. He was elected U. S. Senator from 
Tennessee 1875. He died July 31st, 1875. See History. 

Ulysses S. Grant. 

Eighteenth President. 

Born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 29th, 1822. 
Grant served with great gallantry and distinction 
throughout the Civil War. He was inaugurated Pres¬ 
ident 1869; was re-elected and served two terms. He 
died July 23rd, 1885, of cancer of the throat. See His¬ 
tory. 

R. B. Hayes. 

Nineteenth President. 

Born in Delaware County, Ohio, October 4th, 1822. 
His election was disputed by his Democratic opponent, 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


287 


Samuel J. Tilden; the electoral vote of Louisiana was 
claimed by both parties. A commission consisting of 
eight Republicans and seven Democrats, decided by a 
strict party vote, in favor of Hayes. He was inaug¬ 
urated President 1877, and served one term. He died 
January 17th, 1893. See History. 

James A. Garfield. 

Twentieth President. 

Born at Orange, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November 
19th, 1831. He served in the Civil War, and in 
House and Senate of the United States. Garfield was 
inaugurated President 1881. While in company with 
his Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, in the B. & O. 
depot, Baltimore, he was shot by one Charles J. Guiteau, 
on July 2nd; he died on September 19th. His assassi¬ 
nation and death cast a gloom over the entire nation. 
See History. 

Chester A. Arthur. 

Tiventy-Jirst President. 

Born in Franklin County, Vermont, October 5th, 
1830. General in the Civil War and distinguished 
New York lawyer. Assumed the Presidency on the 
death of Garfield, and served out his term. He died in 
New York City of paralysis, November 8th, 1886. See 
History. 

Grover Cleveland. 

Twenty-second President. 

Born at Caldwell, Essex County, New Jersey, March 
18th, 1837. Sheriff of Erie County, New York, 1869; 
Mayor of Buffalo, 1882; Governor of New York 1883-84. 
Cleveland was inaugurated President 1885; was a candi- 


288 


C u m min g s ' 1 Encyclopce d i a. 


date for re-election in 1888, and was defeated by Benja¬ 
min Harrison, whom he in turn defeated in 1892, serv¬ 
ing a second term, 1898-97. He now resides in Prince¬ 
ton, New Jersey. See History. 

Benjamin Harrison. 

Twen ty - Th ird President. 

Born in North Bend, Ohio, August 20th, 1833; won 
the brevet of brigadier general with Sherman; U. S. 
Senator from Indiana 1S80-86. Harrison defeated 
Cleveland for the Presidency in 1888, but was defeated 
for re-election by Cleveland in 1892. He now resides in 
Indianapolis, Indiana. See History. 

William McKinley. 

Twenty - Four th President. 

Born in Niles, Ohio, January 29th, 1844; served 
many years in Congress where he was the leader of his 
party, he was the father of “The McKinley Bill.” 
Served two terms as Governor of Ohio. Inaugurated 
President, March 4th, 1897. See History. 


Biographies of Colonial Period. 

Balboa, Nunez Vasco De (1475-1517), Spanish 
explorer, discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. 

Calvert, George (1582-1632), Lord Baltimore, ob¬ 
tained a grant of land, and effected the settlement of 
Maryland. In 1834, Cecil Calvert and his brother, Leon¬ 
ard Calvert, sons of George, founded St. Marys. 

Champlain, Samuel De(1567-1635), born at Brou- 
age, France, explorer and historian; author of A His¬ 
tory of New France. See History. 

Cabot, John, a native of Genoa, and resident of 
Venice; was sent out by England and discovered St. 
John’s Island, 1497. 

Cabot, Sebastian, (1476-1557), son of John Cabot, 
born in Venice; discovered the mainland of North Amer¬ 
ica, 1498; died in London. 

Carroll, Charles (1737-1831), Revolutionary hero, 
signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was 
born at Annapolis, September 20th. Ilis signature always 
appeared “Charles Carroll, of Carrollton.” He served 
in Congress. He laid the corner stone of the B & O. 
depot at Baltimore, July 4, 1828. 

Columbus, Christopher (1435-1506). Columbus 
was born at Genoa. He first launched the theory that 
the world is round ; that by sailing in a direct line out 
on the unexplored Atlantic, land would be reached. 
Queen Isabella, of Spain, and her husband, King Ferdi¬ 
nand, fitted out vessels for him, the result being the 
discovery of America, 1492. He made subsequent voy- 


289 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


290 

ages and further explorations even to the mainland of 
South America. This, the world’s greatest navigator, 
was buried at the Cathedral of San Domingo. His 
remains were later buried at Havana ; they have recently 
been removed to Madrid. His Seville monument bears 
this inscription in Spanish “To Castile and Leon Colum¬ 
bus gave a new world." Science and civilization owe 
much to the great Columbus. 

De Soto, Fernando (1496-1542), Spanish explorer ; 
discovered the Mississippi River 1541. He died on May 
21st, and was buried in the bosom of the great river he 
had discovered. 

Drake, Sir Francis (1545-1595), English explorer 
of the West Indies. See History. 

Hudson, Henry (1550-1610), an English navigator 
in the service of Holland; discovered the Hudson River 
1609. On a subsequent voyage, 1610, he discovered the 
Hudson Bay. On his return the mutineers of his crew 
cast Hudson, his son, and a few others, adrift. Thus 
cruelly abandoned they perished. 

La Salle, Robert Cavelier De (1643-1687), born 
at Rouen, France. La Salle made extensive explorations 
in America. See History. 

Magellan, Ferdinando (1470-1521), a Portuguese 
in the employ of Spain, first circumnavigated the globe 
by way of the Strait of Magellan, which he discovered 
and named. 

Marquette, Jaques (1637-1675), a Jesuit Mission¬ 
ary, born at Leon, France. Father Marquette made 
extensive explorations and settlements along the lakes 
and the Mississippi. He died May 18, 1675; his remains 
now rest at Mackinaw. 

Penn, William (1644-1717), a venerable English¬ 
man of the Quaker faith; founded Pennsylvania,“Penn’s 


Cummings' JSncyciopadia. 


291 


Woods,” as a refuge for persecuted Quakers in England. 
He founded Philadelphia (city of brotherly love) 1782. 
After Penn returned to England, he served a term in 
Fleet Street Prison, for debt. He is buried in Jordan’s 
Cemetery, Buckinghamshire, England, See History. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter (1552-1618) born at Devon¬ 
shire, England; made extensive explorations in Amer¬ 
ica; on the accession of King James, he was imprisoned 
for treason. While in prison he wrote A History of the 
World. He was beheaded October 29, 1618. 


Biographies of the Revolutionary 

Period. 

Adams, Samuel (1722-1803) was one of the Revolu¬ 
tionary patriots. Member of the Continental Congress, 
and signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was 
also a member of the Constitutional Convention. 

Allen, Ethan, (1737-1789), native of Connecticut, 
hero of Ticonderoga. 

Armstrong, Gen. John, born at Carlisle, Pa., No¬ 
vember 25, 1757. General Armstrong fought in the Re¬ 
volutionary war; served in the U. S. Senate 1800-4; 
Minister to France 1806; Secretary of War under Madi¬ 
son. He is the author of Notes on the War , and a Bi- 
' ography of Wayne and Montgomery . He died April 1, 

1843. 

Chase, Samuel, born in Somerset County, Md., 
April 17, 1741; died June 19, 1811. Chase was a dis¬ 
tinguished lawyer; was the third member with Charles 
Carroll and Benjamin Franklin, of the Commission ap¬ 
pointed to secure Canadian Co-operation in the Revolu¬ 
tion ; Signer of the Declaration of Independence, and 
Chief Justice of Maryland. 

Clark, George Rogers (1752-1818), a strong and 
dashing fighter in the Revolution, and subsequently in 
subduing the hostile Indians. 

Conway, Gen. Thos. (1733-1800), born in Ireland, 
fought with gallantry, but mistakenly favored Gates as 
Comm tnder-in-chief to replace Washington. 

Greens, Gen. Nathaniel, born at Warwick, R. I., 

292 


Cummings* Encyclopedia. 


>08 


May 27, 1742. Greene did gallant service in driving the 
British from Georgia and the Carolinas. After the war 
he received a grant of a large tract of land from Georgia, 
and another from South Carolina. He settled in Georgia 
and died there June 19, 1786. See History. 

Gates, Gen. Horatio, born in Maldon, Essex 
County, England, 1728. As a general in the Revolu¬ 
tion, he was not a success; ignominiously fled at Cam¬ 
den, leaving the gallant De Kalb to perish with the con¬ 
tinental regulars. He died in New York City, April 10, 
1806. 

Henry, Patrick, orator and patriot; born in Han¬ 
over County, Va., May 29, 1736; died June 6, 1799. 
Henry was Secretary of State under Washington. See 
famous speech in Reading; see Literature. 

Hayne, Col. Isaac, born in S. C., 1745; entered 
the patriot army; was taken prisoner and cruelly hung 
by order of Lord Rawdon, in fulfillment of Corawmllis’ 
wishes, August 4, 1781. 

Hopkins, Essek, first commodore of the American 
Navy, born in R. I., 1718; died in Providence, February 
26, 1802. 

Hopkins, Stephen, signer of the Declaration of In¬ 
dependence ; born R. I., March 17, 1707; died in Provi¬ 
dence, July 19, 1785. Governor ofR. I., 1754-68. 

Jasper, Sergeant William, w T hose rescue of the 
flag at Savannah at the sacrifice of his life, w T on for him 
a hero’s place in history, was born 1737, and died 1779. 
A name of a county in Georgia, and a square in Sa¬ 
vannah, perpetuate the hero’s memory. 

Jay, John, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of 
the United States, w T as born in New r York City, Dec. 12, 
1745; died at Bedford, N. Y., May 17, 1829. See Jay’s 
Treaty, in History. 


294 


Gumming *’ Encyclopaedia. 


Johnson, Richard Mentor, born in Ky., 1781; 
died at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 19, 1850. In Congress 

1807-19, and 1829-87; U. S. Senator 1819-29 ; Vice- 
President 1837-41. 

Johnson, Samuel, born in Scotland, Dec. 15, 1733; 
died in N. C., Aug. 18, 1816. Served on Committee of 
Correspondence; in Continental Congress; Governor of 
N C., 1788; U. S. Senator 1789-93; Judge of Supreme 
Court 1800-1803. 

Jones, John Paul, born in Scotland, July 6, 1747; 
died in Paris, July 18, 1799. He entered the service of 
Russia 1787, and was knighted for his victories over the 
Turks. See History. 

De Kalb, John, (Baron de), born in Alsace, 
France, June 29, 1721; killed in the battle of Camden, 
Aug. 19, 1780. See History. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, born in Lithunia, Poland, 
Feb. 12, 1756; received the brevet of brigadier-general 
from Congress for gallantry in the Revolution. Return¬ 
ing to Poland he fought with great gallantry for his be¬ 
loved country. He died 1816. 

Lee, Richard Henry, signer of the Declaration of 
Independence, and a member of the commitree that 
drafted it; was born at Stratford, Westmoreland Coun¬ 
ty, Va., Jan. 20, 1732; died at Chantilly, Va., June 19, 
1794. U. S. Senator from Va., 1789-92. See His¬ 
tory. 

Lee, Henry, “Light-horse Harry,” born in Westmore¬ 
land County, Va., Jan, 29, 1756; died in Georgia March 
25, 1818 Lae graduated at Princeton, entered the pa¬ 
triot army and did noble service with Greene in the 
South. While in a debtor’s prison he wrote Memoirs of 
the War in the Southern Department of the United 
States. G-en. Lee was appointed by Congress as its 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


295 


representative to deliver the funeral oration in Philadel¬ 
phia on the death of Washington. 

Lewis, Gen. Andrew, born in the County of Ulster, 
Ireland, 1730. General Lewis entered the patriot army 
with his four brothers, Samuel, Thomas, Charles and 
William. Lewis defeated the British at Point Pleasant , 
and drove Lord Dunraven from Virginian waters. He 
died in Bedford County, Va., 1780. 

Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, born in Mass., Jan. 23, 
1733, and died there, May 9, 1810. He served with gal¬ 
lantry in the war; received Cornwallis’ sword at York- 
town; Secretary of War, 1781-84; collector of the Bos¬ 
ton Port, 1789-1808. 

Livingston, Robert, born in New York City, Nov. 
27, 1747 ; died Feb. 26, 1813; helped to draft the Decla¬ 
ration of Independence; in Congress 1783; Minister to 
France, 1801-4, where he effected the purchase of Lou¬ 
isiana. See History. 

Lynch, Thomas, Jr., signer of the Declaration of 
Independence, born in St. George’s, S. C., Aug. 5* 1749; 
served in the Continental Congress; died 1779. 

McIntosh, Gen. Lachlan, born in Scotland, March 
17, 1725 ; died at Savannah, Feb. 20, 1806. Served in 
southern campaign; in Congress 1784. 

Macon, Nathaniel, born in N. C., 1757; died 

June 29, 1837. Macon served in the war; in Congress 
1791-1815; U. S. Senator, 1816-28. Jefferson called 
him “The last of the Romans.” 

Marion, Gen. Francis, “The Swamp Fox,” born 
in S. C., 1732; died Feb. 29, 1793. Marion helped ma¬ 
terially in driving the British from the south; served a 
term in the United States Senate. 

Mason, Stephen Thomas, born at Stratford, Va., 
1760; died in Philadelphia, May 10, 1803. Brigadier- 


290 • Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

general in the Revolution; United States Senator, 1794- 
1803. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, born in N. J., 1736; died 
at Winchester, Va., July 6, 1802. Morgan fought 
through the French and Indian War; achieved distinction 
for gallantry at Quebec , Saratoga , and with Greene; in 
Congress, 1795-99. 

Montgomery, Gen. Richard, born in Ireland, Dec. 
2, 1736; killed at the battle of Quebec, Dec. 81, 1775. 
Entering Canada, he captured St. John, took Montreal 
on Nov. 3, but in storming Quebec, was killed. His re¬ 
mains lie under a monument in front of St. Paul’s 
Church, Broadway New York City. 

Morris, Gouverneur, born at Morrisania, N. Y., 
Jan. 31, 1752; died Nov. 6, 1816; entered Congress 

1777-80: Minister to France, 1792-94: U. S. Senate 
1800; chairman Erie Canal Commission, 1810-16. 

Morris, Robert, born in Lancashire, England, Jan. 
20, 1734; member of the Continental Congress; opposed 
the Declaration of Independence, but on its adoption 
signed it; became a great patriot and gave liberally of 
his means to the support of the army; was the first U. S. 
Senator from Pennsylvania. He died in comparative 
poverty, in Philadelphia, May 8, 1806. 

Moultrie, Gen. William, “Hero of Fort Sulli¬ 
van,” born 1781 ; made prisoner at the siege of Charles¬ 
ton ; wrote his Memoirs in prison; Governor of S. C., 
1785-86, 1794-96; died in Charleston, Sept. 27, 1805. 

Moylan, Gen. Stephen, born in Cork, Ireland, 
1734; died in Philadelphia, April 11, 1811. Brevetted 
brigadier-general for gallantry in the campaign at the 
south ; Register and Recorder of Chester County, Pa., 
1792; Commissioner of Lands for Pa., 1794. 

O’Brien, Com. Jeremiah, hero of the first naval vie- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


297 


tory, on Maehias Baj", born in Ireland, 1750; died in 
Me. 1818; served in the Mass, navy; was taken prisoner 
and confined in Mill Prison, England, from which he 
escaped. At the time of his death he was collector of 
customs, at Maehias. 

Osgood, Samuel, horn in Mass., Feb. 14, 1748; died 
in New York, Aug. 12, 1813; in Congress 1780-84; first 
Postmaster-general, 1789-91; 1803-18, naval officer at 
the Port of New York. 

Otis, James, born at West Barnstable, Mass., Feb. 
5, 1725; died at Andover, Mass., May 23, 1783. Pa¬ 
triot: author of The Rights of the Colonies Vindicated. 

Parsons, Samuel Holden, born in Lynn, Conn., May 
14, 1737; died in Ohio, Nov. 17, 1789; lawyer; briga¬ 
dier-general succeeding Putnam ; judge of the North-west 
Territory. 

Pickens, Gen. Andrew, who, with Marion, Sump¬ 
ter and Lee, gave Greene such gallant aid in driving the 
British from the south, was born in Bucks County, Pa., 
Sept. 13, 1739; died in S. C., Aug. 17, 1817. 

Pinckney, Charles, born in Charleston, S. C.,1758; 
died Oct. 29, 1824; in Congress 1784-87 ; Governor of S. 
C., U. S. Senator, 1798-1801 ; minister to France, 1802- 
5; in Congress, 1819-21. 

Pinckney, Gen. Charles Cotesworth, born in 
Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746; died Aug. 16, 1825; 
served in the war; made prisoner at Charleston ; member 
of the Constitutional Convention; minister to France, 
1783; candidate for Vice President, 1800. 

Pomroy, Gen. Seth, born in Mass., 1744; died Feb. 
1777 ; served with distinction until his death. 

Porter, Gen. Peter Bijel, born in Salsbury, Conn., 
Aug. 1773; lawyer; in Congress 1809-13; Secretary of 
War under J. Q. Adams; Erie Canal Commissioner. 


398 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Prescott, Col. William, born in Groton, Mass., 
Feb. 20, 1726; died Oet. 23, 1795; fought with great 
gallantry at Bunker Hill, and with Gates at the north. 

Pulaski, Count Casimir, born in Lithuania, Poland, 
March 4, 1718; killed at Savannah, Oct, 11, 1779. Pu¬ 
laski served with great gallantry in the cause of Amer¬ 
ican freedom. There is a monument at Savannah to 
Greene and Pulaski. 

Putnam, Gen. Israel, born at Salem, Mass., Jan. 7, 
1718; died at Brooklyn, Conn., May 29, 1790. He fought 
throughout the war, from the famous battle of Bunker 
Hill until atfected with paralysis while strengthening 
the fortifications at West Point, 1779. 

Quincy, Josiah, Jr. born in Boston, Feb. 23, 1744; 
died April 26, 1775 ; he went to England to petition for 
a redress of Colonial grievances, and died on the home 
voyage. 

Ramsey, Dr. David, born in Lancaster, Pa., April 
2, 1749; died at Charleston, S. C., May 8, 1815; made 
prisoner at Charleston by the British; in Congress 1782- 
86; author ot History of the Revolution , Life of Wash¬ 
ington, and History of the United States. 

Randolph, Edmund, born in Va., Aug. 10, 1753; 
died Sept. 12, 1813; in Congress, 1779-82; Governor of 
Va., 1786-88; Attorney-general, 1789; Secretary of 
State, 1794. 

Reed, George, signer of the Declaration of Indepen¬ 
dence, born in Cecil County, Md., Sept. 18, 1733; died 
at New Castle, Del., Sept, 21, 1798 ; in Congress 1774-77 ; 
U. S. Senator 1789-93; Chief-justice of Delaware, 1793- 
98. 

Reed, Gen. Joseph, born in Trenton, Aug. 27, 1741; 
died in Philadelphia, March 5, 1785; served with gallan¬ 
try in the war; president of Pennsylvania, 1778-81. 

Rodnjet, Gin. Caesar, signer of the Declaration of 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


299 


Independence, born at Dover, Del., 1730; died 1783; in 
Congress, 1774; brigadier-general in the war; president 
of Del., 1778-82. 

Ross, George, signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, born in New Castle, Del., 1730; died in Lan¬ 
caster, Pa., 1779; in Continental Congress. 

Rutledge, John, born in Charleston, of Irish par¬ 
ents, 1739; died July 23, 1800; distinguished lawyer; 
in Congress, 1775; served in the army; in Congress 
1782; Justice Supreme Court of U. S., 1789; Chief-jus¬ 
tice D. C., 1791. 

St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, born in Scotland, 1734; 
died at Greensburg, Pa., Aug 31, 1818; served through¬ 
out the war; unsuccessful in his Indian campaign. 

Schuyler, Gen. Philip, born at Albany, Nov. 22, 
1733; died there, Nov. 18, 1804; in Congress, 1775; 
served as major-general with effect against Burgoyne; 
in Congress, 1778-81; U. S. Senator from N. Y., 1789- 
91, and 1797. 

Scott, Gen. Charles, born in Cumberland County, 
Va., 1733; died Oct. 22, 1820; served throughout the 
war with Wayne and Lincoln; made prisoner at 
Charleston; Governor of Kentucky, 1808-12. 

Sherman, Roger, signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence; born in Newton, Mass., April 29, 1721; died 
at New Haven, Conn., July 23, 1793; lawyer; in Con¬ 
gress 1774-93. 

Smith, Gen. Samuel, born at Carlisle, Pa., July 27, 
1752; died in Baltimore, April 22, 1839; served through¬ 
out the war; was in the House and Senate continuously 
from 1793 to 1833. , 

Spencer, Gen. Joseph, born at East Haddam, 
Conn., 1714; died Jan. 13,1789; major-general in the 
war; in Congress, 1778: in Conn. State Council until his 
death. 


800 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Stark, Gen. John, “Hero of Bennington and Sara¬ 
toga,” was born in Londonderry, N. H., Aug. 27, 1728. 
Stark served with great gallantry throughout the entire 
war, and then retired to private life. 

Steele, Gen. John, born in Lancaster, Pa., 1758. 
died Feb. 27, 1827; served with the Pa. militia in the 
war; Collector of the Port of Philadelphia. 

Stevens, Gen. Edward, born in Va., 1745; died 
Aug. 17, 1820; fought at Brandywine, Germantown, 
Camden, and with Greene; participated at the siege of 
Yorktown. 

Sullivan, Gen. John, born in Berwick, Me., Feb. 
17, 1740; died at Durham, N. H., Jan. 23, 1795; made 
prisoner at Long Island ; distinguished himself at Tren¬ 
ton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, Wyoming 
Valley and in the southern campaign; President of New 
Hampshire, 1786-89; U. S. Judge of New Hampshire, 
1789-95. 

Sumpter, Gen. Thomas, born in Va., 1734; died, 
1832; did gallant service in the South; in Congress, 1789 
-93, and ’97-1801; U. S. Senator, 1801-10; Minister to 
Brazil, 1811. 

Trumbull, John, artist, was born at Lebanon, 
Conn., June 6, 1756; died in N. Y., Nov. 10, 1843; won 
the rank of colonel in the war. Some of his finest 
paintings are, The Battle of Bunker Hill , The Surrender 
of Burgoyne, and Surrender of Cornwallis. 

Tupper, Gen. Benjamin, born at Stonington, Conn., 
1738; died at Marietta, O., June, 1792; served in the 
French and Indian War; brigadier-general in the Revo¬ 
lution; became a judge at Marietta, 1788. 

Van Rensselasr, Gen. Henry Killian, born in Al¬ 
bany, 1744; died at Greensburg, N. Y., Sept. 9, 1816; 
won the commission of military general; severely wound¬ 
ed at Fort Anne. 


Cummings 1 j Encyclopaedia. 


301 


Walton, Col. George, signer of the Declaration of 
Independence; born in Frederick County, Va^ 1740; 
died at Augusta, Ga., Feb. 2, 1804; lawyer; in Congress, 
1776-81; wounded and taken prisoner at Savannah; 
Governor of Ga., 1779, and in 1789; Chief-justice of 
Ga., 1783; U. S. Senator, 1795-96. 

Warren, Gen. Joseph, born at Roxbury, Mass., 
June 11, 1741; killed at Bunker Hill, June 17, 17'5. Dr. 
Warren was president of the provisional Congress, 1774. 

Wayne, Gen. Anthony, “Hero of Stony Point,” was 
born in Chester County, Pa., Jan. 1, 1745; died at Erie, 
Pa., Dec. 15, 1796; received thanks of Congress for gal¬ 
lant services; general-in-chief of the army, 1792; 
wounded at Stony Point; forced the evacuation of Sa¬ 
vannah 1782 ; successful campaign against the Indians, 
1795. His absolute fearlessness in danger, gave him 
the name of “Mad Anthony.” 

West, Benjamin, painter, born in Springfield, Pa., 
Oct. 10, 1738; died in London, March 10, 1820. Among 
his best paintings may be mentioned, Christ Healing 
the Sick , and Heath on the Pale Horse. 

Wilkinson, Gen. James, born near Benedict, Md. 
1757 ; died in Mexico, Dec. 28, 1825 ; brevetted brigadier- 
general in the Revolutionary War; served in “War of 
1812”; author of Memoirs of My Own Times. 

Williams, Gen. Otho Holland, born in Prince 
George’s County, Md., 1749 ; died July 16, 1794; was w T ith 
DeKalb, Gates and Greene, winning the commission of 
brigadier-general ; collector of Customs for Md. at the 
time of his death. 

Wolcott, Gen. Oliver, signer of the Declaration of 
Independence, born at Windsor, Conn., Nov. 26, 1726; 
died at Litchfield, Conn., Dec. 1, 1797; lawyer; in 


802 


Cummingt ’ Encyclopedia. 


Congress, 1776; served with Gates, and won a brigadier- 
generalship at Saratoga; Governor of Conn., 1796-97. 

Wooster, Gen. David, born in Stratford, Conn., 
March 2, 1710; died at Danbury, Conn., May 2, 1777; 
served in French and Indian War; with Montgomery at 
Quebec, succeeding to his command; sent to oppose 
Tryon, and received a mortal wound at Danbury. 


Biographies of Administration 

Period. 

Armistead, Col. George, born in Caroline County, 
Va., April 10, 1780; died at Baltimore, April 25, 1819; 
distinguished for his defense of Fort McHenry and 
Baltimore, “War of 1812.” 

Astor, John Jacob, born at Waldorf, Germany, 
July 17, 1763 ; died in New York, March 29, 1848; great 
fur and real estate merchant; founder of the Astor 
Library, N. Y. 

Brainbridge, Com. William, born in Princeton, N. 
J., May 7, 1774 ; died in Philadelphia, July 28, 1833 ; cap¬ 
tured while in command of the Philadelphia, in the 
■war with Tripoli. As commander of the Constitution 
he captured the British frigate, Java , off the coast of 
Brazil, Dec. 26, 1812. 

Barry Com. John, born in Wexford County, Ireland, 
1745; died in Philadelphia, Sept. 13, 1803; hero of the 
first important naval victory, capturing the British 
tender Edward. He commanded successively, the Lex¬ 
ington, Effingham, Raleigh , Alliance, and United 
States. 

Benton, Thomas Hart, born at Hillsboro, N. C., 
March 4, 1782; died in Washington, April 10, 1858; 
lawyer; Colonel in the “War of 1812;” author of Thirty 
Years' View of the United States Senate; served thirty 
years in the U. S. Senate from Mo. 

Biddle, Com. James, born in Philadelphia, Feb. 29, 

308 


304 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


1783; died Oct. 1, 1848; taken prisoner from the Phila¬ 
delphia, and kept in prison 19 months; first lieutenant 
of the Wasp ; captured the Penguin as commander of 
the Hornet ; performed diplomatic service in Japan, 1845. 

Boone, Daniel, born in Bucks County, Pa., Feb. 11, 
1735; died at Charette, Mo., Sept. 26, 1820; explorer 
and pioneer; founder of Boonville, Ky. 

Boyd, Gen. John Parker, born in Newburyport, 
Mass., Dec. 21, 1768; died in Boston, Oct. 4, 1830. 
At Crysler’s Field, and Fort George, he did gallant ser¬ 
vice; naval officer at Boston, 1830. 

Brown, Gen. Jacob, born in Bucks County, Pa., 
May 9, 1775 ; died in Washington, Feb. 24, 1828; fought 
with Harrison in the second war with England ; general- 
in-chief of U. S. Army, 1821. 

Burr, Aaron, born in Newark, N. J., Feb. 6, 1756; 
died on Staten Island, Sept. 14, 1836; served in the Rev¬ 
olutionary War; U. S. Senate, 1791-97; tied Jefferson in 
the electoral college, 1800, for President, becoming Vice 
President; killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, 1804; 
tried for treason, and acquitted. See History. 

Calhoun, John Caldwell, born in S. C., March 18, 
1782; died in Washington, D. C., March 31, 1850; in 
Congress, 181117; Secretary of War, 1817-25; Vice 
President, 1825-31; U. S. Senator, 1831-44; Secretary of 
State 1844-45; U. S. Senate, 1845-50. 

Carey, Mathew, born in Ireland, 1760; died in 
Philadelphia, Sept. 16, 1839; editor and publisher; 
author of Vindicce Hibernicce, The Olive Branch , etc. 

Cass, Gen. Lewis, born at Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9. 
1782; died in Detroit, June 17, 1866; brigadier-general 
with Harrison in the second war with England ; Governor 
of Michigan Territory ; Superintendent of Indian Affairs; 
Jackson’s Secretary of War; U. S. Senate, 1836-42; 


Cummings' Encyclopceclia . 


305 


Minister to France, 1845-48; Democratic Candidate for 
President, 1848; U. S. Senate, 1851-57; Secretary of 
State, 1858 ; author of France; its King, Court and Gov¬ 
ernment. 

Choate, Rufus, born at Essex, Mass., Oct. 1, 1799; 
died at Halifax, N. S., July 13, 1859; eminent lawyer 
and orator; was in the lower house, and succeeded 
Webster in the U. S. Senate. 

Clay, Henry, born in Hanover County, Va., April 
12, 1777; died at Washington, June 29, 1852. Henry 
Clay was a farmer, 1793; school teacher, 1794; laAvyer; 
U. S. Senate, 1808-11; Speaker of Congress, 1811, 
elected Speaker fifteen times; Secretary of State, 1825- 
29; U. S. Senate, 1831-42; defeated for President, 1832, 
and again in 1844; U. S. Senate, 1849-52. 

Clinton, De Witt, born in Orange County, N. J., 
March 2, 1769; died at Albany, Feb. 11, 1828; lawyer; 
Mayor of N. Y. 1803-7, 1809-10, and 1811-14; candidate 
of the Peace party for President, 1812; Governor of N. 
Y. 1817-22, and 1824-27; promoter of the Erie Canal. 

Cobb, Howell, born in Jefferson County, Ga., Sept. 
7, 1815; died in New York City, Oct. 9, 1868; in Con¬ 
gress, 1843-51; Governor of Ga., 1851-53; in Congress, 
1856-57; Secretary of the Treasury, 1857-60; brigadier- 
general in the Confederate army. 

Crittendon, John Jordon, born in Woodford 
County, Ky., Sept. 10, 1786; died at Frankfort Ky., 
July 26, 1863; lawyer; U. S. Senate, 1817-19, and 1835- 
41; Attorney General under Harrison; U. S. Senate, 
1842-48; Governor of Ky., 1848-50; Attorney General, 
1850-54; U. S. Senate, 1855-61; in lower house, 
1861-63. He stood for the Union but was opposed to 
Emancipation. 

Croghan, Col. George, born in Louisville, Ky., 


306 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 


Nov. 15, 1791; died in New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1849; served 
with gallantry at Fort Stephens, and with Harrison, in 
the “War of 1812,” winning a gold medal from Congress ; 
postmaster of New Orleans, 1824; Inspector-general of 
the army; served with Taylor in Mexico. 

Dallas, George Mifflin, born in Philadelphia, July 
10, 17-92; died there, Dec. 31, 1864; lawyer; U. S. Sen¬ 
ate, 1832-33; Embassador to Russia, 1837-89; Vice 
President, 1845-49; Minister to England, 1856-61. 

Douglass, Stephen Arnold, born in Brandon, Vt., 
April 23; 1813; died in Chicago, June 3, 1861; school 
teacher and lawyer; in lower house, 1843-47 ; Senate, 
1847-61; Democratic candidate for President, 1861. 

Emmet, Thomas Addis, brother of the Irish patriot, 
born at Cork, Ireland, April 24, 1763; died in New 
York, Nov. 14, 1827; confined in St. George prison 
Scotland; came to America, 1804; eminent lawyer; 
attorney-general of New York, 1812. 

Forsyth, John, born at Fredericksburg, Va., Oct. 
22, 1780; died in Washington, Oct. 21, 1841; lawyer; in 
lower house and Senate, 1813-18, and 1823-27; Governor 
of Ga., 1827-29. As Minister to Spain, 1819-20, he 
effected a treaty, by which the U. S. secured Florida; 
Secretary of State 1835-41. 

Fulton, Robert, born in Little Britain, Lancaster 
County, Pa.. 1765; died in New York, Feb. 21, 1815; 
painter; civil-engineer; invented the first steamboat, the 
Clermont , 1807. 

Gaines, Gen. Edmond Pendleton, born in Culpepper 
County, Va., March 20, 1777; died in New Orleans, 
June 6, 1849 ; won the brigadier-generalship in the “ War 
of 1812,” and with Jackson against the Seminoles. 

Gallatin, Albert, born in Geneva, Switzerland, 
January 20, 1761; died at Astoria, August 12, 1849; 


Gumming*' Encyclopedia. SOf 

served in the Revolutionary war; settled in Pa., 1786 ; 
in House, 1795-1801; Secretary of Treasury, 1801-13; 
Minister to France, 1815-23 ; Minister to England, 1827. 
Gallatin was a distinguished scholar; president of New 
York Historical Society, 1843-49. 

Gerry, Elbridge, signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, born at Marblehead, Mass., July 17, 1744; 
died in Washington, Nov. 23, 1814; in Congress, 1776- 
85, and 1789-93; Governor of Mass., 1810; elected Vice 
President, 1812. 

Girard, Stephen, founder of Girard College, Phil., 
born in Bordeaux, France, May 21, 1750; died in Phila¬ 
delphia, Dec. 26, 1831. Girard became a banker and 
amassed a fortune of nearly $10,000,000. His college 
is for the education of white boys, who are orphans and 
poor; by a provision of the will, no religious exercises 
are permitted nor are ministers of any denomination 
allowed on the premises; not even as visitors. 

Harney, Gen. William Sibley, born in La., 1798; 
served in the Seminole and Black Hawk Wars; won 
commission of brigadier-general in Mexican War; 
brevetted major-general, 1865. 

Hayne, Robert Young, born at Charleston, S. C., 
Nov. 10, 1791; died at Ashville, N. C., Sept. 24, 1839; 
distinguished lawyer and orator; U. S. Senator, 1823-32; 
advocate of States Rights; noted for his famous debate 
with Webster on the Tariff; Governor of S. C. 

Hicks, Thomas Holliday, born in Dorchester 
County, Md., Sept. 2, 1798; died in Washington, Feb. 
13, 1865; Governor of Md., 1858-62 ; stood firmly for the 
Union; elected U. S. Senator, 1862. 

Houston, Gen.Samuel, born in Va , March 2, 1793; 
died at Huntersville, Texas, July 25, 1863; served in 
Creek War; became a lawyer and went to Congress, 


808 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


1823-27; Governor of Tennessee, 1827 ; went to Texas 
and led the revolution. He won the independence of 
Texas and became its first President; U. S. Senator, 
1846-49; Governor of Texas, 1849; opposed secession 
and resigned his office. 

Kane, Elisha Kent, born in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 
1820; died at Havana, Feb. 16, 1857; was in Mexican 
War; made an expedition in search of Sir John Frank¬ 
lin, in which the open Polar sea was discovered. 

Kenton, Gen. Simon, born in Va., April 3, 1755; 
died in Logan County, Ohio, April 29, 1836; served in 
“War of 1812.” He afterward became poor and Con¬ 
gress allowed him a pension. 

King, Rufus, born at Scarborough, Me., March 14, 
1755, died on Long Island, April 29, 1827; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor, from N. Y., 1789; Minister to England, 1798-1804; 
U. S. Senator, 1818; Minister to England, 1825, but 
resigned, 1826. 

Kearney, Gen. Stephen Watt, brother of the 
“Hero of Chantilly,” born in Newark, N. J., Aug. 30, 
1794; died in St. Louis, Oct. 30,1848; served in the 
“War of 1812;” as brigadier-general, with Fremont, he 
conquered Mexico and California to the ocean, in the 
Mexican War; major-general, 1848. 

Lawrence, Captain James, born in Burlington, N. 
J., Oct. 1, 1781; killed on the Chesapeake, June 5, 1813. 
On Feb. 4, 1813, as commander of the Hornet , he 
defeated the British brig Peacock. He was killed in a 
fight with the Shannon. See History. 

Lewis, Gen. Morgan, born in New York, Oct. 16, 
1754; died there April 7, 1844 ; served in the Revolution ; 
lawyer; Chief Justice of N. Y., 1801; Governor of N. 
Y., 1804-7; served as major-general in “War of 1812;” 
President ofN. Y. Historical Society. 


Cummings' 1 Encyclopaedia . 


309 


Livingston, Edward, born in Columbia County, N. 
Y., May 27, 1764; died at Rhinebeck, N. Y., May 23, 
1836; in Congress, 1795-1801; went to New Orleans 
where he was aid to Jackson; rose to great distinction 
in the law; in Congress from La., 1823-29; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor, 1829-31; Secretary of State, 1831-33; Minister to 
France, 1835. 

Lyon, Mathew, born in Ireland, 1746; died in 
Arkansas, August 1, 1822; served in the Revolution; 
member of Congress, 1797-1801; served four months in 
jail for libeling President Adams, under the Sedition 
Law ; represented Ky. in Congress, 1803-11. 

MacDonough, Com. Thomas, born in New Castle, 
Del., Dec. 23, 1783; died at sea, Nov. 16,1825. In com¬ 
mand of the squadron on Lake Champlain he adminis¬ 
tered a crushing defeat to the British, Sept. 11, 1814. 

Macomb, Gen. Alexander, born at Detroit, Michi¬ 
gan, April 3, 1782; died in Washington, June 25, 1841; 
won a generalship in the “War of 1812;” succeeded 
General Brown, in 1835, as general-in-chief of the 
United States Army. 

Marshall, John, born in Germantown, Va., Sept. 
24, 1755; died in Philadelphia, July 6, 1835; served 
with his father at Brandywine and Germantown; law¬ 
yer; in Congress, 1799; Secretary of War, 1800; Secre¬ 
tary of State, 1801; Chief-Justice U. S., 1801-1835. 

Miller, Gen. James, was born at Peterboro, N. H., 
April 25, 1776; died at Temple, N. H., July 7, 1851; 
won distinction at Lundy’s Lane, 1814; Governor of 
Arkansas, 1819-25; collector of Salem, 1825-49. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, born in Charles¬ 
town, Mass., April 27, 1791; died in New York, April 
2, 1872; painter; electrician; inventor of the Magnetic 
Telegraph, 1835. 


310 


Cummings'’ JZncyclopadia. 


Patterson, Gen. Robert, born in Tyrone County, 
Ireland, Jan. 12, 1792; died Aug. 7, 1881; served with 
gallantry in “War of 1812,” Mexican War, and in the 
Civil War; was at Bull Run. Retired on account of age 
with the thanks of a nation for a long and patriotic ser¬ 
vice in arms. 

Perry, Com. Oliver Hazzard, born in South Ken¬ 
sington, R. I., Aug. 23, 1785; died in Trinidad, W. T., 
of yellow fever, Aug. 23, 1819; served in the war with 
Tripoli; gave the British a crushing defeat on Lake 
Erie. See History. 

Phillips, Wendell, born in Boston, Nov. 29, 1811; 
died there, April 9, 1870; lawyer, orator, reformer; 
President of the Anti-Slavery Society. 

Pickering, Gen. Timothy, born in Salem, Mass., 
July 17, 1745; died there, Jutie 29, 1829; Adjutant-gen¬ 
eral in the Revolution; Postmaster-general, 1793; Sec¬ 
retary of War, 1794-5; Secretary of State, 1795-1800; 
U. S. Senator from Mass,, 1803-11; Member of Mass. 
Board of War, 1812-15; in Congress, 1815-17. 

Pike, Gen. Zebulon Montgomery, born in Lamber- 
ton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1779: killed April 27, 1813. See 
History. 

Porter, Gsn. Peter Buel, born in Salisbury, Conn., 
Aug. 14, 1773; died at Niagara Falls, March 20, 1844; 
lawyer; in Congress, 1809-13, and 1815-16; Secretary of 
War, 1828 ; projector and commissioner of the Erie Canal. 

Quincy, Josiah, born in Boston, Feb. 4, 1772>; died 
at Quincy, Mass., July 1, 1864; lawyer; State Senator; in 
Congress; 1805-1813; opposed the “War of 1812.” 

Randolph, John, born in Chesterfield County, Ya., 
June 3, 1773; died in Philadelphia, May 24, 1833; in 
Congress, 1799-1823; in U. S. Senate, 1823-27; in Con¬ 
gress, 1827-20; fought a duel with Henry Clay, 1826. 


Cummingi Encyclopedia. 


311 


Reed, Admr. George Campbell, born in Ireland, 
1761, died in Philadelphia, Aug. 22, 1862; served with 
distinction in the engagements between the Constitution 
and Querriere , and the United States and Macedonia ; 
Superintendent of the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, 1862. 

Scott. Gen. Winfield, born in Petersburg, Va., 
June 13, 1786; died at West Point, May 29, 1866; law¬ 
yer; with Dearborn in the “War 1812;” defeated the 
British at Chippewa; Commander-in-chief of American 
armies in Mexican War. General Scott entered the 
Civil War, but soon retired. He had served his country 
long and faithfully. 

Story, Joseph, born in Marblehead, Mass., Sept. 18, 
1779; died in Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 10, 1845; lawyer 
and poet; in State Assembly, and in Congress 1808; 
associate judge of U. S. Supreme Court, 1811-45; author 
of commentaries on the Constitution, entitled, Conflict 
t f Laws. 

Swift, Gen. Joseph Gardner, born at Nantucket, 
Dec. 31, 1783; died at Geneva, N. Y., July 23, 1865; 
first graduate of West Point; won the brevet of briga¬ 
dier-general, in “war of 1812civil engineer in the 
employ of the government; chief engineer in the con¬ 
struction of the Harlem Railroad; peace ambassador to 
Canada, 1841. 

Taney, Roger Brook, born in Calvert County, Md., 
March 17, 1777; died in Washington, Oct. 12, 1864; 
admitted to the bar, 1799; in Maryland Assembly and 
Senate; Jackson’s Attorney-general; succeeded Marshall 
as Chief-justice U. S. Supreme Court; rendered the de¬ 
cision of the court in Dred Scott Case. See History. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, born on Staten Island, 
May 27, 1794; died in New York, Jan. 4, 1877; became 
a “ferryman,” at 16, with little money. In 1856, he had 


312 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


a monopoly of the steamboat business of the United 
States. In 1861 he presented the government with the 
“Vanderbilt,” which cost $800,000. He died worth 
$ 100 , 000 , 000 . 

VanRensselaer, Gen. Solomon, son of Henry*Killian 
VanRensselaer, born in Rensselaer County, N. Y., Aug. 
6, 1774; died at Albany, N. Y., April 23, 1852; com¬ 
manded at the battle of Queenstown Heights; in Con¬ 
gress, 1819-22; published the Story of Queenstown 
Heights. 

Webster, Daniel, born at Salisbury, N. H., Jan. 
18, 1782; died at Marshfield, Mass., Oct. 24, 1852; 
school teacher, lawyer, statesman, orator; in Congress, 
1813-17, and again in 1823-27; U. S. Senate, 1827-39; 
Secretary of State, 1841-43; U. S. Senate, 1845-50; 
opposed the admission • of Texas, and the war with 
Mexico; Secretary of State, 1850-52. 

Wirt, William, born in Bladensburg, Md , Nov. 8, 
1772 ; died at Washington, Feb. 18, 1834 ; lawyer; author 
of letters entitled The Rainbow , and a Life of Patrick 
Henry; attorney-general, 1817-29; Anti-Masonic Candi¬ 
date for President, 1832. 

Woodbury, Levi, born in Francestown, N. H., Dec. 
22, 1789; died at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 7, 1850; 
lawyer and statesman; Governor of N. H., 1823; speaker 
of the House, 1825 ;U. S. Senate, 1825-31; Secretary of 
the Navy, 1831-34; Secretary of the Treasury, 1834-41; 
U. S. Senate, 1841-45; Judge of the Supreme Court of 
the U. S., 1845-50. 

Young, Brigham, born at Wittingham, Vt., June 1, 
1801; died at Salt Lake City, Aug. 29, 1877. Young 
was the leader of the Mormons. Young had twelve real 
wives, and a score of others who were his by the com¬ 
mand of the “Spirit;” his children were legion. 


Civil War-Since Civil War. 

A. 

Adams, Charles Francis, son of John Quincy 
Adams, born in Boston, Aug. 18, 1807; died Nov. 21, 
1886; Candidate of the Free Soil party for Vice President, 
1848; in Congress, 1859; Minister to England, 1861-68; 
author of The Life of John Adams, and The IAfe of 
John Quincy Adams. 

Anderson, Gen. Robert, defender of Fort Sumpter, 
born in Ky., June 14, 1805; died at Nice, France, Oct. 
26, 1871; was in the Indian wars and Mexican War; 
commanded Fort Sumpter during the siege; graduate of 
West Point. 

Arnold, Gen. Richard, born in Providence, R. I., 
April 12, 1828 ; died 1882 ; graduate of West Point, 1850 ; 
at Bull Run, in Bank’s expedition, at Port Hudson, 
Fort Fisher, Fort Morgan; brevetted major-general, 1866. 

Auger, Gen. Christopher Colon, born in N. Y., 
1812; graduate of West Point 1848; served in Mexican 
War; wounded at Cedar Mountain; made major-general, 
1862; Commander of the Department of Washington, 
1863-66; transferred to the Department of the Platte, 
1867 ; made brigadier-general, 1869. 

Alger, Gen. Russell Alexander, born in Lafayette, 
O., Feb, 27, 1836; admitted to the bar, 1859; entered 
the war as captain of 2nd Michigan Cavalry, 1861; 
came out as major-general; Governor of Michigan, 1884- 
86; at present Secretary of War under McKinley. 


314 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Severely criticised for hie management of camps, etc., in 
Spanish-American War. 

Anthony, Susan B., born in South Adams, Mass., 
Feb. 15, 1820; distinguished advocate of “Women’s 
Rights,” and of temperance. 

Averill, General William Woods, born in Cam¬ 
eron, N. Y., 1832; graduated at West Point, 1855; 
entered the cavalry; served against the Indians, and in 
the Mexican War; rendered gallant service with Pope, 
Pleasanton, Hunter, Sigel and Sheridan ; brevetted major- 
general, 1865; Council-general to Canada. 

Ayers, Gen. Romeyne B., born in N. Y., 1823 ; died 
Dec. 4, 1888; graduated at West Point, 1847; with the 
artillery in Mexican War; served at Bull Run, on the 
Peninsula, in Virginia and Maryland, and in the Rich¬ 
mond Campaign; brevetted major-general of volunteers, 
March, 1865. 

B. 

Bailey, Thodorus, rear-admiral, U. S. N., born in 
Franklin County, N. Y., April 13, 1805; died in Wash¬ 
ington, Feb. 10, 1877; entered the navy, 1818; captain, 
1855; commodore, 1862; rear-admiral, retired, 1866; 
assisted in the capture of New Orleans; led the attack 
on Fort St. Philip and on Fort Jackson. 

Baker, Col. Edward Dickinson, born in London, 
1811, killed at Ball’s Bluff, Oct. 21, 1861; member of 
Congress, and Colonel in the Mexican War; distin¬ 
guished lawyer; elected Senator from Oregon, 1861. 

Banks, Gen. Nathaniel Prentiss, born at Waltham, 
Mass., Jan. 30, 1816; editor, lawyer and statesman; in 
Congress, 1853-57, Speaker of the House, 1855; Gover¬ 
nor of Mass., 1858-61; major-general of volunteers, 1861; 
*e->*ved in Va., and Red River Expeditions. 

Bayard, Thomas Francis, born in Wilmington, Del., 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia . 


815 


Oct. 29,1828; lawyer; U. S. Senator, 1869-85; Secretary 
of State, 1885-89; Minister to England, 1893-97. Mr. 
Bayard died at Bedham Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. 

Beauregard, Gen. Peter Gustayus Toutaut, born 
near New Orleans, 1818; died in New Orleans, 1893; 
graduate of West Point, 1838 ; wounded at Chapultepec; 
major-general of Confederate army; conducted the siege 
of Fort Sumpter; fought at Bull Run, Shiloh ; commanded 
the Carolina forces, and was with Lee at Petersburg and 
Richmond. 

Beaver, Gen. James A., born in Perry County, Pa., 
Oct. 21, 1837 ; joined the volunteers as second lieutenant; 
wounded at Chancellorsville; lost a leg at Petersburg; 
Governor of Pa., 1886-90; at present a member of the 
Superior Court of Pa. 

Blaine, James Gillespie, born in Brownville, 
Washington County, Pa., Jan. 31,1830; moved to Maine, 
where he served in the state legislature, 1858-62; served 
in the National House and Senate for more than twenty 
years; Secretary of State for Garfield; Republican Can¬ 
didate for president, 1884; author of Twenty Years of 
Congress; Secretary of State for Harrison; died, 1893. 

Blair, Gen. Francis Preston, born in Lexington, 
Ky., Feb. 19, 1821; died July 8, 1875; served in Mexi¬ 
can War; in Congress, 1856-57, and 1860-62; entered 
the army as colonel of volunteers; made major-general, 
Nov. 29, 1862 ; served at Lookout Mountain, Missionary 
Ridge; with Sherman to the sea;Vice Presidential candi¬ 
date with Seymour, 1868; in U. S. Senate, 1871-73. 

Booth, Edwin Thomas, born in Belair, Md., Nov. 
13, 1833; died 1893; founder of the Booth Theater. 
Booth was the ^ery greatest actor of the Shakesperean 
character. 

Barrett, Lawrence, born in Patterson, N. J., 


316 


Cummings'* Encyclopedia. 


April 4, 1838; companion of Booth, and ranked next to 
him in ability. Barrett began with such drama as the 
French Spy, The Hunchback, etc., but soon turned to 
heavy tragedy. He traveled much with Booth. He 
died March 20, 1891. 

Beaucicault Dion, born in Dublin,Ireland, Dec. 20, 
1822; died Sept. 18, 1890. He was a comedian of the 
very first class. He wrote the Colleen Baton, The 
Shaughraun, After Dark, etc. 

Bragg, Gen. Braxton, born in Warren County, N. 
C., March 22, 1817; died in Galveston, Texas, Sept. 27, 
1876; graduate of West Point, 1837 ; served in the In¬ 
dian wars, and war with Mexico; commanded Confeder¬ 
ate army at Shiloh, Munfordville, and against Sherman 
in the South. 

Breckenridge, John Cabell, born near Lexington, 
Ky., Jan. 21, 1821; died at Lexington, May 17, 1875; 
Major of volunteers in Mexican War; in Congress 1851- 
55; elected Vice President, 1857; U. S. Senator, 1861; 
served as major-general, and Secretary of War for the 
Confederacy. 

Bryan, Col. William Jennings, born in Salem, 
Marion County, Ill., March 19, 1860; served in Congress 
from the First Nebraska District 1891-95. Mr. Bryan was 
the Democratic candidate for President, 1896, and al¬ 
though defeated, won the admiration of friend and foe 
for his remarkable and brilliant campaign. He is the 
uncompromising champion of National Bimetallism. 
This financial view has brought forth powerful opposi¬ 
tion from his own party. Bryan is, however, the idol of 
the Democracy. He entered the Spanish-American War 
as colonel of the 3rd Nebraska Volunteers. 

Buckner, Gen. Simon Bolivar, born in Ky., 1824; 
graduate of West Point, 1844 ; served in the Mexican 


Cumin mgs' Encyclopedia. 


817 


war; tutor at West Point; general in the Confederate 
army; surrendered Fort Donelson to Grant; Governor of 
Ky., 1887; candidate for Vice President on the Jeffer¬ 
sonian, or Gold Democratic ticket, 1896. 

Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, born near Marietta, 
O , March 23, 1818; graduated at West Point, 1841; 
served in the Mexican War; entered the Civil War, as 
major-general of volunteers; fought at Shiloh and de¬ 
feated Bragg in Ky.; was succeeded by Rosecrans. 

Butler, Gen. Benjamin Franklin, born in Deer¬ 
field, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818, died in Boston, 1893; served 
in the Civil War; captured New Orleans, 1862; com¬ 
manded the army of the James, 1863; in Congress, 1866- 
78 ; Governor of Mass., 1882; Greenback candidate for 
President, 1884. 

C. 

Carr, Gen. Eugene A., born in Erie County, N. 
Y., March 20, 1830; graduate of West Point, 1850; 
served in Mexican War; with Lyon in Mo., wounded at 
Pea Ridge ; served throughout the war ; brevetted major- 
general for gallantry. 

Casey, Gen. Silas, born at East Greenwich, R. I., 
July 12, 1807 ; died Jan. 22, 1882; graduated at West 
Point, 1826; with Scott in Mexico ; major-general, 1862; 
served through the war: brevetted major-general, 1865, 
author of Infantry Tactics for Colored Troops. 

Cameron, Simon, born in Lancaster County, Pa., 
March 8, 1799; died Jun: 26, 1889; U. S. Senate, 1845; 
again 1857 ; Secretary of War under Lincoln, also Minis¬ 
ter to Russia for a few months in 1862; U. S. Senate, 
1866-77. 

Cameron, James Donald, son of Simon Cameron, 
born in Middletown, Pa., May 14, 1833; Secretary of 


8X8 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

War, from May 22, 1876, to March 3, 1877; U. S. Sen¬ 
ate, 1877-97. 

Canby, Gen. Edward Richard Sprigg, born in 
Kentucky, 1819; killed by the Indians, April 11, 1873; 
graduate of West Point, 1839; served in the Seminole 
War, and War with Mexico; Major-General of volun¬ 
teers, May 1864, and commander of Department of 
West Mississippi; captured Mobile, April 12, 1865; 
Commander of the Department of Columbia, 1869, 
where he was murdered by the Indians. 

Carlisle, John Griffin, born in Kentucky, Sep¬ 
tember 5, 1835; in Kentucky Legislature in 1858, and 
1866-71; in Congress, 1877-90, from 1883 to 1889, as 
Speaker; U. S. Senate, 1890-93; Secretary of the Treas¬ 
ury, 1893-97. Carlisle is now practicing law in New 
York City. 

Clay, Gen. Cassius Marcellus, born in Madison 
County, Ky., Oct. 19, 1810; served in the Mexican War; 
Minister to Russia, 1861-69; killed a negro, 1877, who 
had threatened his life; he was acquitted. He recently 
married a young girl from whom he has been divorced. 

Colfax, Schuyler, born in New York City, March 
23; 1823; died Jan. 13, 1885; in Congress, 1854-69; 
served five years as Speaker of the House; Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, 1869-73. 

Cooper, Peter, born in New York City, Feb. 12, 
1791; died there April 4, 1883; engaged in the iron busi¬ 
ness in Baltimore, 1828, and later in other sections, 
amassing a great fortune; built the Cooper Union, in 
N. Y., 1854-59; candidate of the Greenback party for 
President, 1876. 

Corcoran, Gen. Michael, born in Sligo, Ireland, 
Sept. 21, 1827 ; died near Fairfax Court House, as the 
result of a fall from his horse, Dec. 22, 1863. As Colo- 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


819 


nel of the Sixty-ninth New York, he was distinguished 
for gallantry at Bull Run, where he was wounded and 
made prisoner; exchanged and made brigadier-general, 
18G2; organized the “Irish Legion,” and did valiant 
work in Virginia and North Carolina. General Corco¬ 
ran was under arrest when the war broke out for refus¬ 
ing to march in honor of the Prince of Wales. 

Couch, Gen. Darius Nash, born in Putnam County, 
N. Y., July 23, 18i } 2; graduate of West Point; served 
in Mexican War and against the Seminoles; made briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers, 1861; distinguished for gal¬ 
lantry at Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill; made 
major-general, 1862, for gallantry at Antietam; with 
Hooker, and with Thomas, and served in the Carolinas; 
died in Norwalk, Conn., Feb. 12, 1897. 

Cox, Gen. Jacob Dolson, born in Montreal, Canada, 
Oct. 27, 1828; made brigadier-general of volunteers, 
1861, for his services in W. Va., served under Pope in 
Va., at South Mountain; commanded the Ohio District, 
1863; made major-general, Dec., 1864; Governor of 
Ohio, 1866-68; Secretary of the Interior under Grant. 

Crawford, Gen. Samuel Wylie, born in Franklin 
County, Pa., Nov. 8, 1829; died, 1892; surgeon in U. S. 
Army; made brigadier-general for services in the Shen¬ 
andoah, and at Cedar Mountain; served at Antietam, 
and Gettysburg; with Grant from Wilderness to Appo¬ 
mattox; made major-general of volunteers, March, 1865. 

Crook, Gen. George born near Dayton, O., Sept. 
8, 1828, died, 1890; graduate of West Point, 1853; won 
brigadier-generalship for services in W. Va., 1861; com¬ 
manded cavalry at Chickamauga; commanded the army 
of W. Va., 1864, as major-general; with Sheridan in the 
Shenandoah; brevetted brigadier-general of the regular 
army, March 13, 1865. 


320 


Cummings' 'Encyclopaedia. 


Cullum, Gen. George Washington, born Feb. 12, 
1812; died, 1892; graduate of West Point, 1833; served 
with Scott in Mexican War; made brigadier-general of 
volunteers, Nov. 1861 ; served withHalleck; Superinten¬ 
dent of West Point, 1864-66; brevetted major-general 
1865; author of several works on military tactics, and 
a Biography of West Point Graduates. 

Curtis, Gen. Samuel Ryan, born in O., Feb. 3, 
1807 ; died at Council Bluffs, la., Dec. 25, 1866; gradu¬ 
ate of West Point, 1831; served with Taylor in Mexican 
War; in Congress, 1857-61 ; made brigadier-general of 
volunteers, May, 1861, and major-general, March 1862; 
severed with gallantry in Missouri, winning the battle 
of Pea Ridge; Indian Commissioner, 1865-66. 

Custer, Gen. George Armstrong, born in New 
Rumley, 0., Dec. 5, 1839; killed by the Indians on the 
Little Big Horn River, June 25, 1876; graduate of West 
Point, 1861; with McClellan and Pleasanton, winning 
the brigadier-generalship, 1863; with Sheridan in the 
Shenandoah, and Grant in the Wilderness. 

Cody, Col. William F., “Buffalo Bill,” born in 
Scott County, Iowa, 1845 ; famous as an Indian and buf¬ 
falo fighter. In a test for the title of “Buffalo Bill,” 
with Bill Comstock, he killed sixty-nine buffaloes to 
Comstock’s forty-six, in one day. He served with char¬ 
acteristic daring in the Civil War as scout for Crook and 
Sheridan, and again in the wars against the Indians. 
He served in the Nebraska Legislature and was briga¬ 
dier-general of the Nebraska National Guards. Colonel 
Cody has gained popularity and fame on two continents 
with his “Wild West Show.” 

Dahlgren, Admr. Joan Adolph, U. S. N., born in 
Philadelphia, 1809; died in Washington, July 12, 1870; 
inventor; commanded the South Atlantic Squadron, and 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


821 


co-operated with Gen. Gilmore in the capture of Morris 
Island, Forts Wagner, and Sumpter; assisted Sherman 
in the capture of Savannah. 

D. E. 

Daly, Agustin, born in Plymouth, N. C., July 20, 
1838; dramatist and theatrical manager, Daly’s reputa¬ 
tion has reached two continents, placing him at the head 
of the profession. 

Davis, Jefferson, born in Christian County, Ky., 
June 3, 1808; died Dec. 6, 1889; graduated at West 
Point, 1828; served in the Indian War, and the Mexican 
War; in Congress, 1845-46 ; in U. S. Senate, 1847-51, 
and in 1857-61; Secretary of war under Pierce; elected 
President of the Confederacy, Nov. 1861; arrested in 
Ga., 1865, for treason, confined at Fortress Monroe for 
two years; released on bail; was never tried. 

Dodge, Gen. Grenville Mellen, born in Danvers, 
Mass., April 12, 1831; entered the Civil War as colonel 
of Iowa volunteers; made brigadier-general for services 
at Pea Ridge; commanded the District of Mississippi, 
1862; made major-general for services in the Ga. cam¬ 
paign ; succeeded Rosecrans as commander of the De¬ 
partment of Missouri, 1864; in Congress from Iowa, 
1867-69. President of the commission to investigate the 
management of the war, 1898. 

Dougherty, Daniel, “The Silver-tongued orator of 
America,” was born in Philadelphia, Oct. 15, 1826; 
died in New York, 1892 ; distinguished orator, lecturer 
and lawyer; celebrated for his great speeches in nomi¬ 
nating Hancock, in 1880, and Cleveland, 1888, for the 
Presidency. 

Douglass, Frederick, born near Easton, Md., 1817; 
died 1895; a slave in boyhood, escaping when twenty- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


322 

one; became the agent of the Anti-Slavery Society; lec¬ 
tured here and in Europe; edited the North Star, after¬ 
ward Frederick Douglass ’ Paper, at Rochester; pub¬ 
lished the National Era, in Washington, 1870; marshal 
of the District of Columbia; Minister to Hayti, 1889. 

Doubleday, Gen. Abner, born in N. Y., June 26, 
1819; died, 1893; graduate of West Point, 1842; served 
in Mexican War, and against the Indians; with Anderson 
at Sumpter, fired the first gun; brigadier-general of 
volunteers, 1862: in Hooker’s corps atAntietam; served 
at Gettysburg, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville; 
brevetted brigadier, and major-general of the U. S. Army, 
March, 1865. 

Dupont, Com. Samuel Francis, born at Bergen 
Point, N. J., Sept. 27, 1803; died in Philadelphia, June 
23,1865; commanded South Atlantic Squadron, Oct. 
1861; captured Port Royal; made rear-admiral, July 
1861; failed to capture Charleston, April, 1863; helped 
to organize the Annapolis naval school. 

Dewey, Rear-Admiral George, ‘ ‘Hero of Manila, ’ ’ 
born at Montpelier, Vt., 1838; graduate of Annapolis, 
1858; lieutenant on Wabash in the Mediterranean Ser¬ 
vice, 1860 ; with Farragut at the capture of New Orleans, 
1862; with Commander McComb on the James River, 
1863; with the North-Atlantic blockading squadron, 
1864; won the commission of lieutenant-commander for 
gallantry at Fort Fisher; instructor in the Naval Acad¬ 
emy, Annapolis, 1868-69; made captain of the Dolphin 
of the “White Squadron,” 1884; commissioned Commo¬ 
dore, 1896 ; commanding the Asiatic Squadron, he de¬ 
stroyed the Spanish Fleet in Manila Bay, May 1, 1898; 
ended the Spanish-American war by the bombardment 
and capture of the city of Manila. Dewey was promoted 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


328 


to the rank of Rear-Admiral, and presented with a sword 
and the thanks of Congress. See History. 

Early, Gen. Jubal Anderson, born in Franklin 
County, Va., Nov. 3, 1816; graduate of West Point, 
1837; served in the Mexican War; entered the service of 
the Confederacy; held the line at Fredericksburg; com¬ 
manded a division of Gettysburg; made his celebrated 
raid in the Shenandoah ; defeated at Waynesboro ; author 
of Memoirs of the Last Tear of the War, and Jackson's 
Campaign against Pope in 1862. 

Edison, Thomas Alva, born in Milan, O., Feb. 11, 
1847; celebrated electrician and inventor; inventor of 
The Duplex Telegraph , Phonograph , Microphone, Tele¬ 
phone, etc\ lives at Menlo Park, N. J. 

Ewell, Gen. Richard Stoddard, born in Washing¬ 
ton, 1820; died at Spring Hill, Tenn., Jan. 25, 1872; 
graduate of West Point, 1840; served in the Mexican 
War; major-general in Confederate army; served 
throughout the war; lost a leg at the Battle of Groverton; 
was with Lee before and at the surrender of Appomattox. 

F. 

Farragut, Adm’l. David Glasgow, born near Knox¬ 
ville, Tenn., July 5, 1801; died at Portsmouth, N. H., 
Aug. 14, 1870; commanded the fleet and Gulf squadron 
in the capture of New Orleans, 1862 ; made admiral July, 
1866; visited Europe, Asia and Africa, in the steamship 
Franklin, 1867-68. 

Field, Cyrus West, born in Stockbridge, Mass., 
Nov. 13, 1819; died 1892; laid the great Atlantic cable, 
which was finally successful, 1866. 

Fish, Hamilton, born in New York, Aug. 3, 1808; 
in Congress, 1842; Governor of New York, 1818; U. S. 
Senate, 1851-68; Secretary of State, 1869-76. 


Cummin p#’ Mncyclopcedia. 


t U 

Florence, William J., actor, born in Albany, July 
28, 1831; great delineator of the Irish character. He is 
well-known and admired on two continents. 

Foote, Andrew Hull, rear-admiral, U. S. N., was 
born in New Haven, Conn., Sept. 12, 1800; died in New 
York, June 26, 1883; co-operated with Grant in the 
capture of Fort* Henry and Donelson, 1862. 

Franklin, Gen. William Buel, born in York, Pa., 
Feb. 26, 1823, and graduated at West Point, 1843; served 
on Taylor’s staff in Mexico; teacher of philosophy for 
four years; made brigadier-general for services at Bull 
Run; made major-general, July 4, 1862; served under 
McClelland, in Maryland; with Banks, 1863; brevetted 
major-general of the U. S. A., 1865, but resigned, 1866. 

Fremont, Gen. John Charles, born in Savannah, Ga., 
Jan. 21, 1813; died in New York, July 13, 1890; gov¬ 
ernment surveyor of the West; assisted Kearney in the 
conquest of California, in the Mexican War; Califor¬ 
nia’s military governor and first U. S. Senator; Buchan¬ 
an’s opponent for President, 1856; made major-general, 
1861; candidate of the “Radical Republicans,” for Pres¬ 
ident, 1864. 

Fry, Gen. James Barnet, born in Ill., Feb. 22, 1827 ; 
graduate of West Point, 1847; served in Mexican and 
Civil War; brevetted major-general, 1865. 

Fuller, Melville, W., born in Augusta, Me., Feb. 
11, 1833; moved to Chicago, and built up a large law 
practice; appointed Chief-justice of the Supreme Court 
of the United States by Cleveland and took the oath of 
office, October 8, 1888. 

G. 

Gage, Lyman J., born in De Ruyter, Madison Coun¬ 
ty, N. Y., June 28, 1836; in the service of the Merchant* 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


825 

Savings, Loan and Trust Company, of Chicago, as book¬ 
keeper,1858; paying-teller, 1860; cashier, 1861; with the 
First National of Chicago, 1868; Vice President, 1882; 
President of the American Banker’s Association, 1883; 
President of the World’s Fair Association, 1890; called 
to the Secretaryship of the Treasury, under McKinley, 
March 4, 1897. 

Geary, Gen. John White, born in Westmoreland 
County, Pa., Dec. 30, 1819; died Feb. 8, 1873; served 
as lieutenant colonel of volunteers in Mexican War; ter¬ 
ritorial governor of Kansas, 1856; entered the Civil War, 
and was wounded at Bolivar Heights and Cedar Moun¬ 
tain ; served as brigadier-general at Chancellorsville and 
Gettysburg; was in the army of the Cumberland, made 
military governor of Savannah, and brevettedmajor-gen¬ 
eral; Governor of Pa., 1866-72. 

Gibbon, Gen. John, born in Pa., April 20, 1827; 
graduated at West Point, 1847 ; served in the Mexican 
War; entered the Civil War under McDowell; brevetted 
major-general, 1862, for gallant service at Antietam ;com¬ 
manded second army corps, at Gettysburg; brevetted 
brigadier-general for services at Spottsylvania, and 
Petersburg; brigadier-general U. S. A., 1885; served 
against the Indians; commander of the Division of the 
Pacific, 1890. 

Gilmore, Gen. Quincy Adams, born in Lorain 
County, Ohio, Feb. 28, 1825; died April 7, 1888; grad¬ 
uated at West Point, 1849, and instructor of engineer¬ 
ing there, 1852-56; entered the war in 1861, as engineer 
under T. W. Sherman ; made brigadier-general of volun¬ 
teers, 1862 ; succeeded Hunter, June, 1863, in command 
of the Department of South Carolina, as major-general; 
reduced forts Pulaski , Sumpter , and Wagner; brevetted 
major-general of U. S. A. 


323 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


Gordon, Gen. John Brown, born in Upson County, 
Ga., Feb. 6, 1832; entered Confederate army and served 
through the war, being wounded several times; was 
with Lee at Appomattox; elected U. S. Senator, 1873, 
1879, 1885, and 1890. He is a popular lecturer, both 
north and south. 

Gregg, Gen. David McM., born in Pa., 1834; grad¬ 
uate of West Point, 1855; entered the Civil War; com¬ 
mander of division of cavalry in the army of the Poto¬ 
mac; brevetted major-general, 1864; Consul at Prague, 
1874; Auditor-general of Pa., 1893-94. 

Gresham, Gen. Walter Q., born in Harrison 
County, Ind., March 17, 1832; died, 1895; served in the 
Civil War; severely wounded at Atlanta, where he 
received the brevet of major-general of volunteers; U. 
S. Judge for the district of Indiana, 1869-80; Postmas¬ 
ter-general 1882-July, 1884; Secretary of the Treasury, 
July 1884 to Oct. 1884; Judge of the seventh circuit, 
1884-93; received 123 votes for the republican nomina¬ 
tion for President, 1888; Secretary of State for Cleve¬ 
land from March 4, 1893, until his death. 

Griffin, Gen. Charles, born in Ohio, 1826; died at 
New Orleans, Sept. 15, 1867; graduate of West Point; 
served in the Mexican War; instructor at West Point, 
1859-61; fought at Malvern Hill, second Bull Run, 
Antietam, Fredericksburg, Gettysburg; brevetted major- 
general in the regular army; in command of the Depart¬ 
ment of Texas; died of yellow fever. 

Grover, Gen. Cvuier, born in Me., July 24, 1829; 
died June 6, 1885 ; graduate of West Point, 1850 ; entered 
the war, and became brigadier-general of volunteers in 
the army of the Potomac,1862 ; wounded at Cedar Creek ; 
brevetted brigadier and major-general, March, 1865. 


327 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

H- 

Hampton, Gen. Wade, born in Columbia, S. C., 
March 28, 1818; brigadier-general in the Confederate 
army; fought in the peninsula campaign and at Gettys¬ 
burg; lieutenant-general, in command of the Virginia 
cavalry, 1864; commanded the rear-guard of the Con¬ 
federate army in S. C.; governor of S. C. two terms, 
1876-78; U. S. Senator, 1879-91. 

Hancock, Gen. Winfield Scott, born in Montgom¬ 
ery County, Pa., Feb. 14, 1824; died on Governor’s 
Island, Feb. 9, 1886; graduate of West Point, 1844; 
served with Scott in Mexico and on the frontier; entered 
the war as brigadier-general of volunteers, 1861; 
commanded a division, 1863; made major-general for 
gallantry at South Mountain, Antietam, Fredericksburg 
and Chancellorsville; took Reynolds’ place, and com¬ 
manded the left center at Gettysburg, where he was 
wounded; helped Grant in the battles before Richmond, 
winning laurels at Wilderness, Spottsylvania, Cold Har¬ 
bor and Petersburg ; commanded many departments after 
the war, and was senior major-general of the army at 
his death. He was nominated by the Democrats for 
President, 1880. See History. 

Halleck, Gen. Henry Wager, born at Waterville, 
Oneida County, N. Y., 1814; died at Louisville, Ky., 
Jan. 9, 1872; graduate of West Point, 1839, professor 
there, 1841-44; served in Mexican War; made major- 
general U. S. army, Aug. 1861, succeeding Fremont in 
command of the Western Department; commander at 
Corinth, and was made general-in-chief, holding that 
position until succeeded by Grant; made commander of 
the south, 1869; author of military works. 

Harlan, John Marshall, born in Ky., June 1, 
1833; Judge of Franklin County, Ky., 1864; served in 


828 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


the war; became associate justice of the United States 
Supreme Court, Nov. 29, 1877. 

Harney, Gen. William Selby, born near Adysbor>, 
Tenn., Aug. 27, 1800; died May 9, 1889; served in the 
Indian wars and won the brevet of brigadier-general in 
the Mexican War; served in the Civil War; brevetted 
major-general, March, 1889. 

Harris, Isham Green, born in Tenn., Feb. 10, 1818; 
in Congress, 1848-58 ; governor of Tenn., 1857-61; served 
in the Confederate army; elected U. S. Senator, 1877, 
1883, 1889; died in Washington, July 8, 1897. 

Hartranft, Gen. John Frederick, born in Mont¬ 
gomery County, Pa., Dec. 6, 1880; died Oct. 17, 1889; ' 
served with distinction in the war, and was brevetted 
major-general for gallantry at the Wilderness; auditor- 
general of Pa., 1866-70; governor of Pa., 1872-78. 

Hawley, Gen. Joseph Roswell, born in N. C., Oct. 
31, 1826; entered the war and won the commission of 
brigadier-general, 1864; brevetted major-general, Sept, 
1865; governor of Conn., 1866-67; in Congress, 
1873-77; U. S. Senator 1881-98. 

Hazen, Gen. William Babcock, born in Vt., Sept. 
27, 1830; died January 16, 1887; graduated at West 
Point, 1855 ; entered the war and fought with gallantry 
at Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, and 
with Sherman to the Sea; brevetted major-general, 
1865; chief of U. S. Signal Service, 1880-87. 

Hendricks, Thomas Andrews, born in Muskingum 
County, O., Sept. 7, 1819; died in Indianapolis, Nov. 
25, 1885; in Congress, 1851-55; Commissioner of the 
land office, 1855-59; U. S. Senator 1863-69; governor 
of Ind., 1873-77; candidate for Vice President with Til- 
den; elected Vice President, 1884. 

Hill, Gen. Daniel Harvey, born in S. C., July 12, 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


320 


1821 ; died Sept. 25, 1889; graduate of West Point, 
1842 ; served in the Mexican War; joined the Confeder¬ 
ate army and won the brigadier-generalship at Big 
Bethel, 1861 ; took part in most of the important en¬ 
gagements, winning the commission of lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral, 1863. After the war he published the Field and 
Farm , and later The Land we Love ; president of the 
University of Arkansas, 1877, and later of the Military 
and Agricultural College of Georgia. 

Hill, David Bennett, born in Havana, N. Y., 
Aug. 29, 1843; admitted to the bar, 1864; in State as¬ 
sembly, 1870-71; elected mayor of Elmira, Feb. 1882, 
and lieutenant governor, Nov. 1882 with Cleveland; 
assumed the governorship on Cleveland’s resignation ; 
elected governor, 1885 and 1888; elected U. S. Senator, 
1891; now practicing law in Albany. 

Hoar, George Frisbie, born in Concord, Mass., 
Aug. 29, 1826; admitted to the bar, 1849; served three 
terms in the House of Representatives; overseer of Har¬ 
vard, 1874-80; U. S. Senator, 1876-98. 

Hooker, Joseph, born in Hadley, Mass., Nov. 13, 
1814; died at Garden City, Long Island, Oct. 31, 1870. 
graduate of West Point, 1837; served against the Indi¬ 
ans, and m the Mexican War; entered the Civil War as 
brigadier-general of volunteers; served in defense of 
Washington and in the Army of the Potomac; was in 
the seven day fight under McClellan ; wounded at Antie- 
tam; succeeded Burnside in command; was at Chatta¬ 
nooga; served under Rosecrans, Grant and Sherman; 
brevetted major-general, 1865; commanded the Depart¬ 
ment of the East, also the Department of the Lakes; re¬ 
tired with the rank of major-general Oct. 15, 1868. 

Hood, Gen. John Bell, born in Bath County, Ky., 
1880; died of Yellow Fever in New Orleans, Aug. 30, 


330 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


1879; graduate of West Point, 1853; entered the Con¬ 
federate army as brigadier-general; commanded a divi¬ 
sion of Longstreet’s corps at Gettysburg; lost a leg at 
Chickamauga, and was utterly defeated by Thomas at 
Nashville. 

Howard, Gen. Oliver Otis, born in Leeds, Me., 
Nov. 8, 1830; graduated at West Point, 1854, becoming 
assistant professor there, 1857; entered the war and 
lost an arm at Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862; made major- 
general of volunteers, Nov. 1862; commanded Sher¬ 
man’s right in his march to the sea; brevetted major- 
general of U. S. A. May 1865 ; received many posts of 
honor and is now, 1898, retired, with the full rank of 
major-general. 

Hobson, Lieutenant Richmond Pearson, hero of the 
Merrimac, was born in Greensboro, Hale Co., Ala., Aug. 
17, 1870. He graduated at Annapolis 1889; was made 
assistant naval constructor 1894. Hobson accompanied 
Sampson to Santiago, and his daring exploit in sinking 
the Merrimac in the neck of Santiago bay, is one of the 
most heroic of all history. See History. 

Hunt, Gen. Henry Jackson, born in Detroit Mich., 
Sept. 14, 1819; died Feb. 11, 1889; graduate of West 
Point, 1839; served in the Mexican War, and throughout 
the Civil War; won the brigadier generalship for ser¬ 
vices at Bull Run; fought at Gettysburg, in the army 
of the Potomac and Rapidan, and was mustered out as 
major-general of U. S. A., retired 1883, and became 
governor of the Soldier’s Home, Washington. 

Hunter, Gen. David, born in Washington, July 21, 
1802; died there Feb. 2, 1886; entered the Civil War as 
colonel of cavalry; commanded a division at Bull Run 
as brigadier-general, where he was wounded; succeeded 
Fremont in command of the western department, and 


Cummings' 1 JEncy clopcedia. 


331 


later commanded the army of the south; commanded the 
department of West Va., 1864; brevetted major general, 
March, 1865; retired July 31, 1866. 

». J. K. L. 

• • 

Ingalls, John James, born in Mass., Dec. 29, 183S ; 
began the practice of law in Kansas; in the legislature 
of Kansas, 1873; elected, 1873, U. S. Senator, and 
served in that body seventeen years; at present practic¬ 
ing law. 

Ingalls, Gen. Rufus, born in Me., Aug. 23, 1820; 
graduated at West Point, 1843; served in the Mexican 
War and in the Civil War as chief quartermaster of the 
army of the Potomac; brevetted major-general, 1882; 
retired, 1883. 

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, “Stonewall,” born in 
Clarksburg, Va., Jan. 21, 1824; killed by an accidental 
shot from his men, near Chancellorsville, May 10, 1863; 
graduate of West Point 1816; served in Mexican War; 
commanded the Confederate brigade at Bull Run; brig¬ 
adier-general and major-general in Lee’s army. He did 
gallant lighting in the Shenendoah, and against the 
army of the Potomac. 

Johnston, Gen. Joseph Eccleston, born in Prince 
Edward Co., Va., Feb. 1807; died March 21, 1891; grad¬ 
uated at West Point 1829; entered the Confederate 
army as major-general; commanded in Va., 1862, and 
wounded at Fair Oaks; commanded all the confederate 
forces of the south-west, as general, 1863; defeated by 
Sherman in his march to the sea, 1864, he was replaced 
by Hood ; sent by Lee to oppose Sherman in the Caroli- 
nas, he could do nothing and capitulated at Durham Sta¬ 
tion, N. C., 1865; was commissioner of railroads, 1885- 
89. 


88 2 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, born in Mason Co., 
Ky., 1803; killed at Shiloh, April 6, 186*2; graduated at 
West Point, 1826; served in the Indian wars, the Texan 
wars and the Mexican War; commanded the Division of 
the West in the Confederate army, and met his death in 
the battle of Shiloh. 

Johnson, Gen. Bushrod R., born in Ohio, Sept. 6, 
1817; died 1880; graduated at West Point, 1840; served 
in the Mexican War; entered the Confederate army, and 
made brigadier-general, 1862; captured at Fort Donel- 
son; afterward escaped; wounded at Shiloh; made ma¬ 
jor-general, 1864; commanded a division in Lee’s army 
at his surrender. 

Kearney, Gen. Philip, born in New York, June 2, 
1815; killed in battle near Chantilly, Sept. 1, 1862; 
fought throughout the Mexican War; served in the French 
army in the Italian War, 1859; entered the Civil War at 
its outbreak, as brigadier-general of volunteers; made 
major-general July, 1862, for gallant services in the 
Peninsular campaign; reinforced Pope, and engaged in 
all the important battles between the Rippahannock and 
Washington, until his death. 

Kilpatrick, Gen. Hugh Judson, born near Decker- 
town, N. J., Jan. 17, 1836; died Dec. 6, 1881; graduate 
of West Point, 1861 ; entered the Civil War, and was 
wounded at Big Bethel, 1861; brevetted major-general of 
cavalry in the army of the Potomac; served in the cam¬ 
paign against Atlanta, and with Sherman to the Sea; 
brevetted major-general U. S. A., 1865 ; Minister to Chili, 
Nov. 1865. 

Kelly, Gen. Benjamin Franklin, born in N. H., 
April 10, 1807 ; died, 1892 ; entered the Civil War and 
served throughout that struggle : commanded in W. Va., 

1863; brevetted major-general, March, 1865, for gallant 
service. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


338 


Lamar, Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, born in Putnam 
County, Ga., Sept. 17, 1825; died, 1893; lawyer; in 
Congress from Miss., 1846*50; colonel in Confederate 
army ; professor of law in the university of Miss., 1866-67; 
in Congress, 1872-76 ; in U. S. Senate, 1876-85 ; Secretary 
of Interior, 1885-87: Justice IT. S. Supreme Court, 
1887-93. 

Lee, Gen. Robert Edward, born in Stratford, West¬ 
moreland County, Va., Jan. 19, 1807; died at Lexington, 
Oct. 12, 1870; graduated at West Point, 1829; served 
under Scott in Mexico; Superintendent of West Point, 
1852-55. Lee married Mary, the daughter of Washing¬ 
ton’s adopted son, W. P. Custis. General Lee entered 
the Confederate army, and at the death of J. E. Johnston, 
assumed command of the Confederate army of Ya.; was 
subsequently made general-in-chief of the Confederate 
army; commanded in the Seven Days Battle, at Gettys¬ 
burg and the battles before Richmond; surrendered to 
Grant at Appomattox, April 9, 1865; was president of 
Washington and Lee College, until his death. 

Lee, Gen. William Henry Fitzhugh, second son of 
Robert E. Lee, born at Arlington, Va., May 31, 1837; 
died, 1891; served against the Utah Indians; joined the 
Confederate army, and became brigadier-general 1862; 
major-general of cavalry, 1864 ; was with his father from 
the Rapidan to Appomattox; in Congress, 1886-90. 

Lee, Gen. Fitzhugh, born 1835; graduated at West 
Point when twenty-one; served in the Federal army as 
lieutenant of cavalry; entered the Confederate army and 
served throughout with great gallantry. Fitzhugh Lee 
is a nephew of Robert E. Lee. He has been governor of 
Virginia; was the American Consul-general at Cuba at 
breaking out of the Spanish-American War, in which 
he served as major-general of U. S. Volunteers. 


334 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Lincoln, Robert Todd, son of Abraham Lincoln, 
born in Springfield, Ill., Aug. 1, 1843; served as captain 
on Grant’s staff in the last years of the war; practiced 
law in Chicago; Garfield’s and Arthur’s secretary of 
war; Harrison’s Minister at the Court of St. James. 

Logan, Gen. John Alexander, born in Jackson 
County, Ill., Feb. 9, 1826; died in Washington, Dec. 26, 
1886; served in the Mexican War; admitted to the bar, 
1852; in Congress, 1858-61; entered the Civil War as 
colonel of volunteers, joining Grant; wounded at Fort 
Donelson; served in northern MLs., and was made major- 
general of volunteers; commanded the army of the Tenn., 
before Atlanta, 1864; with Sherman, until the surren¬ 
der of J. E. Johnston, April 26, 1865; in House of Repre¬ 
sentatives until 1871; in U. S. Senate until his death; 
candidate for Vice President, with James G. Blaine, 
1884. 

Longstreet, Gen. James, born in S. C., Jan. 8, 
1821; graduate of West Point, 1842; served in Mexican 
War; entered the Confederate army, and commanded a 
corps of Beauregard’s army at Bull Run, July 21, 1861; 
won the rank of major-general in his fight against 
McClellan, Pope and Burnside; took a leading part at 
Gettysburg and in all the battles leading up to the sur¬ 
render at Appomattox. Grant appointed him Surveyor 
of the Port of New Orleans; Minister to Turkey. 1880-81. 
He took to himself a young bride, Sept. 1897. Long- 
street is now, October 1898, Commissioner of Railroads. 

Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, born in Windham County, 
Conn., July 14, 1818 ; killed in the battle of Wilson’s 
Creek, Mo., Aug. 10, 1861; graduated at West Point, 
1841; served in the Mexican War; made brigadier-gen¬ 
eral of volunteers; at his death he bequeathed all his 
fortune, $30,000, to the Union. 


335 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

M 

Mansfield, Gen. Joseph K. F., born in New Haven, 
Conn., Dec. 22, 1803, died Sept. 18, 1862, from a wound 
received at Antietam ; graduate of West Point; served 
in the Mexican War; won the brigadier generalship for 
the defense of Washington, 1861; commanded a corps 
of the army of the Potomac as major-general, and fell 
gallantly fighting at Antietam. 

McAlester, Gen. Miles Daniel, born in New York, 
March 21, 1833; died April 23, 1869; graduated at West 
Point, 1856; entered the Civil War as master engineer 
with the army of the Potomac; engineer of the depart¬ 
ment of Ohio; later served with Grant; brevetted briga¬ 
dier-general, for services, April, 1865. 

McCall, Gen. George Archibald, born in Phila¬ 
delphia, March 16, 1802; died Feb. 26, 1868; graduated 
at West Point, 1822; served in the Indian and Mexican 
wars ; organized the Pa. volunteers, 1861; in command 
at Mechanicsville, June 26, 1862; captured and held in 
Libby Prison. 

McClellan, Gen. George Brinton, born in Phila¬ 
delphia, Dec. 3, 1826; died Oct. 28, 1885; graduated at 
West Point, 1846; served in Mexican War; entered the 
Civil War as major-general of Ohio volunteers; ap¬ 
pointed by Lincoln, major-general of the United States 
army. His brilliant campaign in Western Va., made him 
comm ander in-chief of all the armies ; fought Lee in the 
memorable Seven Days Battle and at Antietam. Lin¬ 
coln, not understanding his plans removed him for Burn¬ 
side, which very soon proved a blunder. McClellan 
was the Democratic candidate for President, 1864. He 
was governor of New Jersey, 1878-81. 

McClernand, Gen. John Alexander, born in Ky., 
May 80, 1812; practiced law, and served in Illinois’ 


336 


Cuminings’ Encyclopaedia. 


legislature; in Congress 1843-51, and 1859-61; entered 
the Civil War, and served with gallantry, resigning, 
1864. 

McCook, Gen. Alexander McDowell, born in O., 
April 22, 1831; graduated at West Point, 1852; com¬ 
manded a regiment at the first battle of Bull Run; brev- 
etted brigadier-general and major-general for gallantry; 
commanded several departments since the war; is now 
retired; lives in Paris. 

McCook, Gen. Anson George, brother of Alexander, 
born in Steubenville, 0., Oct. 10, 1835; served in the 
army of the Cumberland; with Sherman; brevetted brig¬ 
adier-general for gallantry; in Congress from N. Y., 
1877-83. 

McCulloch, Gen. Benjamin, born in Rutherford, 
County, Tenn., 1814; killed at Pea Ridge, March 7, 
1862 ; served in the Texan and Mexican wars; joined the 
Confederate army, and led a corps at Pea Ridge. 

McDowell, Gen. Irvin, born in Franklinton, O., 
Oct. 15, 1818; died May 4, 1885; graduated at West 
Point, 1841; served in the Mexican War; entered the 
Civil War as brigadier-general, U. S. A.; commanded at 
Bull Run; served under McClellan, Burnside and Pope; 
relieved of command at his own request, Sept. 5, 1862; 
received the brevet of major-general U. S. A., 1865; 
commanded Department of the East and Department of 
the South. 

McPherson,Gen. James Birdseye, born at Clyde, 
Sandusky County, O., Nov. 14, 1828; killed at Atlanta, 
Ga.; graduated at West Point, 1853; entered the Civil 
War, and was made brigadier-general, May, 1862; 
served under Halleck and Grant; made brigadier-gen¬ 
eral U. S. A., 1864; distinguished himself as com¬ 
mander of the army of the Tennessee; with Sherman 
at Atlanta, where he was killed. 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


887 


Magruder, Gen. John B., born in Winchester, Va., 
Aug. 14, 1810; died in Texas, Feb. 1871; graduated at 
West Point, 1830; served in the Mexican War; entered 
the Confederate army ; held the Union forces in check at 
Yorktown, and took part in the Seven Days Battle, 
winning the commission of major-general; took com¬ 
mand of the Texan army, 1862, and recaptured Galves¬ 
ton, Jan.1, 1863. 

Mahone, Gen. William, born in Va., Dec. 21, 1826; 
died, 1893: entered the Confederate army and fought in 
most of the battles of the Peninsula, on the Rappahan¬ 
nock and around Petersburg; in U. S. Senate, 1881-87. 

Manning, Gen. Thomas C., born in N. C., 1831; 
served in the Confederate army, winning the rank of 
brigadier-general; became Chief-justice of the Supreme 
Court of La., 1877-80, and 1882-86; Minister to Mexico, 
1886-87; died in N. Y., Oct. 11, 1887. 

Marmaduke, Gen. John S., born in Mo., Mch. 14, 
1833; died at Jefferson City, Dec. 28, 1887; graduated 
at West Point, 1857 ; served in the Mexican War; joined 
the Confederacy; wounded at Shiloh; won the briga¬ 
dier-generalship for services against Banks; captured 
in Mo., 1864, and confined in Fort Warren, Boston, un¬ 
til Aug. 1865; railway commissioner, 1875; elected gov¬ 
ernor of Mo., 1884. 

Meade, Gen. George Gordon, born in Cadiz, 
Spain, Dec. 30, 1815; graduated at West Point, 1835; 
served in the Mexican War; entered the army of the Po¬ 
tomac ; served in the Seven Days Battle, at Antietam 
and Fredericksburg; succeeded Hooker and commanded 
the battle of Gettysburg; major-general U. S. A., at 
close of the war; commanded the Division of the Atlan¬ 
tic until his death, Nov. 6, 1872. 

Meagher, Gen. Thomas Francis, born in Water- 


838 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


ford, Ireland, Aug. 3, 1823; as an Irish patriot he was 
sentenced by English laws to life exile on Van Diemen’s 
land; escaped and came to America, 1854 ; practiced law; 
entered the Civil War at its outbreak; late in 1861, he 
helped organize the “Irish brigade” in New York City; 
fought throughout the war, winning the rank of briga¬ 
dier-general for gallantry at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, 
Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg and the march 
on Richmond; acting governor of Montana Terri¬ 
tory; drowned in Missouri river, July 1, 1867. 

Merritt, Gen. Wesley, born in New York, 1836; 
graduated at West Point, 1860; entered the Civil War 
and became brigadier-general, 1862 ; commanded the 
cavalry; actively engaged up to Appomattox; became 
brigadier-general U. S. A. He was major-general of 
the Department of the East, at Governor’s Island, N.Y.; 
made Governor-general of the Philippines, and com¬ 
mander of the U. S. forces there, 1898. 

Merrill, Gen. Lewis, born in Pa., Oct. 28, 1834; 
graduated at West Point, 1853; cavalry commander; 
served against Price in Mo., and in the army of the 
Cumberland, winning the rank of brigadier-general; 
served in the south after the war, and was retired, 
1886. 

Miles, Gen. Nelson Appleton, born in Mass., 
Aug. 8, 1839; entered the volunteer service, Sept. 1861; 
fought with conspicuous bravery on the Peninsula, at 
Antietam, with the army of the Potomac at Chancellors¬ 
ville and the Wilderness, winning the commission of 
major-general, which he received Oct. 1865; brevetted 
brigadier-general and major-general of U. S. A., March, 
1867. Being transferred to the West, he conquered the 
Montana Sioux, drove Sitting Bull over the border and 
captured Chief Joseph; commanded the Department of 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


389 


Columbia, 1885, and later transferred to the Missouri 
and Arizona; captured Chief Geronimo, 1886; com¬ 
manded the Department of the Pacific as major-general; 
visited Europe, 1897; is now major-general of the U. S. 
Army, with headquarters at Washington. Gen. Miles 
has just returned from a victorious compaign in Porto 
Rico. 

Mitchell, Gen. Ormsby McKnight, born in Union 
County, Ky., Aug. 28, 1810; died of yellow fever at 
Beaufort, S. C., Oct. 30, 1862 ; graduated at West Point, 
1829; lawyer and founder of the Cincinnati Observatory ; 
entered the Civil War as brigadier-general; seized the 
Corinth and Chattanooga railway; commanded the De¬ 
partment of the South, as major-general in Sept, where 
he contracted the yellow fever. 

Morgan, Gen. George Washington, born in Wash¬ 
ington County, Pa., Sept. 20, 1820; fought in the Tex¬ 
an war and in the war with Mexico' where he won the 
brevet of brigadier-general; entered the Civil War and 
w T as made brigadier-general of volunteers; commanded a 
division of the army of Ohio; served with Rosecrans 
and with Sherman at Vicksburg, 1863; resigned late in 
1863; in Congress, 1868-72. 

Morgan, Edward Dennison, born at Washington, 
Berkshire County, Mass., Feb. 8, 1811; died Feb. 14, 
1883; governor of N. Y., 1859-63; in U. S. Senate, 
1863-69; the most active of the “War governors.” 

Morgan, Gen. Michael Ryan, born in Halifax, 
Nova Scotia, Jan. 18, 1833; came to the United States 
when a boy; graduated at West Point, 1854; served in 
the Civil War and was brevetted brigadier-general; now, 
March, 1898, retired brigadier-general, living at St. 
Paul. 

. Morgan, Gen. John Hunt, born in Huntersville, 


Cummings' JKncycloptodia. 


U* 

Ala., June 1, 1826; killed at Greenville, Tenn., Sept. 4, 
1864; commanded a squadron of cavalry at Shiloh; be¬ 
came a terror to the Union as the “guerilla-chief” fa¬ 
mous for his raids into the north. 

Morton, Levi Parsons, born in Shoreham, Vt., May 
16, 1824; came to New York and entered the banking 
business, 1854; elected to Congress, 1878 and 1880; 
Minister to France, 1881-85; Vice President, 1889-93; 
governor of N. Y., 1894-97; now retired. 

Morgan Gen. James D., born in Berlin, Mass., Nov. 
19, 1810; entered the Civil War and rose to the rank of 
brigadier-general; was at Nashville, and with Sherman 
to the Sea. 

Milligan, Gen. James A., born in Utica, N. Y., 
June 25, 1830, died of wounds received at Winchester, 
July 26, 1864; gallantly defended Lexington, Mo., 
against Price ; engaged in the battles on the Shenandoah, 
receiving his death-wound at Winchester. 

N-O-P-Q. 

Nagle, Gen. Henry Morris, born in Philadelphia, 
Jan. 15, 1815; died in California, March 5, 1886; grad¬ 
uated at West Point, 1835; served in the Mexican War; 
entered the Civil War and rose to the rank of brigadier- 
general, 1862 ; commanded a division in the Department 
of the Carolinas, 1863; commanded the Seventh Army 
Corps; early in 1864, he was mustered out, and became 
a banker in San Francisco. 

Nelson, Gen. William, born in Maysville, Ky., 
1825; shot in a Louisville hotel by Gen. Jefferson C. 
Davis, and died Sept. 29, 1862; entered the Civil War 
and rose to the rank of brigadier-general, Sept. 1861; 
commanded a division in Buell’s army, and was made 
major-general of volunteers, 1862, 


Otimminffi ’ JED noy clop cedi c. 


141 

Negley, Gen. James S., born in Alleghany County, 
Pa., Dec. 26 1826; served in the Mexican War; entered 
the Civil War and made brigadier-general, 1861; served 
under Mitchell, and later commanded a division of the 
army of Ohio; won the major-generalship in the battles 
of Stone River and Chickamauga; in Congress from 
Pittsburg, 1869-71. 

Noyes, Gen. Edward F., born in Haverhill, Mass., 
Oct. 8, 1832; died, 1890; entered the Civil War as major 
of volunteers; served under Pope and in the Atlanta cam¬ 
paign, being severely wounded at Ruff Mills; mustered 
out as brigadier-general; governor of Ohio, 1871, served 
one term; Minister to France, 1877-81; resigned and 
resumed the practice of law in Cincinnati. 

Oakes, Gen. James, born in Pa,, April 4, 1826; 
graduated at West Point, 1846; served in the Mexican 
War; entered the Civil War at its opening; led a regi¬ 
ment in Tenn. and Miss.; brevetted brigadier-general 
U. S. A., 1862; commissioned colonel, March, 1865; 
retired, 1879. 

O’Brien, Gen. Fitz-James, born in Limerick, Ire¬ 
land, 1828, killed in battle, April, 1862; came to Amer¬ 
ica and entered the literary field ; served in the Civil War 
with the 7th New York volunteers, and was killed, 
1862. 

O’Connor, Charles, born in New’ York, Jan. 22, 
1804; died in Nantucket, Mass., May 12, 1884; became 
the leader of the American bar; was senior counsel for 
Jefferson Davis; candidate of the “Straightout Demo¬ 
crat,” and “Labor Reform” parties for President, 1872. 

O’Hara, Gen. Theodore, born in Danville, Ky., 
Feb. 11, 1820; died in Ala., June 6, 1867; served in the 
Mexican War; entered the Confederate army and rose 
to the rank of brigadier-general w r ith A. S. Johnson, and 


342 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


J. C. Breckenridge; acquired fame in the literary field; 
author of The Bivouac of the Bead . 

Olmsted, Gen. W. A., born in IN’. Y., 1837; served 
through the Civil War, winning the rank of brigadier- 
general; is now, 1898, a Catholic priest. 

Ord, Gen. Edward Otho Cresap, born in Cumber¬ 
land, Md., Oct. 18, 1818; died in Havana, Cuba, July 
22, 1883; graduated at U. S. Military Academy, and 
served against the Indians; entered the Civil War as 
brigadier-general of volunteers; made major-general 
May 2, 1862, for his victory of Dranesville; commanded 
Grant’s left at Corinth; wounded at Hatchie; assisted 
in the battle of Iuka and the capture of Vicksburg; 
fought in the Richmond Campaign, and again wounded 
at Fort Harrison; commanded the army of the James at 
Petersburg; with Grant and Sheriden at Lee’s surrender ; 
made brigadier-general of the regular army, July 26, 
1866 ; on the retired list, 1881. His son, Lieutenant Ord, 
was killed before Santiago, Spanish-American War. 

Palmer, Gen. John McCauley, born in Scott 
County, Ky., Sept. 13, 1817; practiced law in Ill., 
entered the Civil War as colonel of volunteers; served at 
Island No. 10, Stone River, and Chickamauga; led Sher¬ 
man’s fourteenth corps, 1864; governor of Ill., 1870-73; 
in U. S. Senate, 1890-96; candidate of the National, or 
Gold Democrats, for President, 1896. 

Pemberton, Gen. John Clifford, born in Philadel¬ 
phia, Pa., Aug. 10, 1814; died in Penllyn, Pa., July 13, 
1881; graduate of West Point; served against the 
Indians and in the Mexican War; entered the Confeder¬ 
ate service, becoming brigadier-general, 1862, and later 
major-general; made lieutenant-general, Oct. 13, 1862, 
commanding the Department of La., Miss., and Tenn.; 
defeated at Champion Hill, May 16, 1863; forced to 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


343 


surrender Vicksburg, July 4, 1863; in 1876, he located 
at Philadelphia. 

Pendleton, Geo. Hunt, born in Cincinnati, O., July 
15, 1825; died in Belgium, Nov. 24, 1889; practiced 
law and served in the Ohio legislature; served in Con¬ 
gress, 1856-65 ; McClellan’s colleague on the Presidential 
ticket, 1864; in U. S. Senate from O., 1879-85; Minister 
to Germany, 1885-89. 

Pickett, Gen. George Edward, born in Richmond, 
Va., Jan. 25, 1825; died in Norfolk. Va., July 30, 1875; 
graduate of West Point, 1846; served in the Mexican 
War; entered the Service of the Confederacy; made 
major-general of the Virginian army, 1862; held Lee’s 
center at Fredericksburg; made his famous assault on 
the Union line at Gettysburg; defeated Butler between 
Richmond and Petersburg; surrounded and overwhelmed 
at Five Forks, April 1, 1865. 

Pike, Gen. Albert, born in Mass., Dec. 29, 1809; 
lawyer; served in the Mexican War; entered the Confed¬ 
erate army; fought at Elkhorn and Pea Ridge; became 
the editor of the Appeal, in Memphis, 1866; moved to 
Washington and died there, April 2, 1891. 

Pleasanton, Gen. Alfred, born in Washington, 
June 7, 1824; died at Washington, Feb. 17, 1897; gradu¬ 
al West Point, 1844; served in the Mexican War; and 
against the Indians; entered the Civil War, and became 
brigadier-general of volunteers, July, 1862; served in the 
important engagements with the army of the Potomac; 
repulsed the advance of Jackson, May 2, 1863; com¬ 
manded the cavalry at Gettysburg; forced Price from 
Mo., 1864; brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A., March, 
1865; placed on the retired list, 1888. 

Peck, Gen. John Jay, born in Manlius, N. Y., Jan. 
4, 1821; died at Syracuse, N. Y., April 21, 1879; grad- 


844 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


uated at West Point, 1843; served in the Mexican War ; 
entered the Civil War, and became brigadier-general of 
volunteers, July 4, 1862; served with distinction 

throughout the war; president of the State Life Insur¬ 
ance Company, at his death. 

Pope, Gen. John, born in Kaskaskia, Ill., March 
16, 1822; died, 1892; graduated at West Point, 1842; 
served in the Indian wars and the war with Mexico; one 
of Lincoln’s escorts to Washington; made brigadier- 
general and assigned to Mo.; commanded the army of 
the Mississippi, and captured Island No. 10; succeeding 
McClellan, he was completely defeated at the second 
Bull Run; resigned his commission, and was sent against 
the Minnesota Indians; made major-general in the reg¬ 
ular army, 1882; placed on the retired list, March, 1886. 

Porter, Gen. Fitz-John, born at Portsmouth, N. H., 
June 13, 1822; graduated at West Point, 1845; served 
in the Mexican War; instructor at West Point, 1849-56; 
entered the Civil War as brigadier-general of volunteers ; 
served in the army of the Potomac. For gallantry at 
Chickahominy, he was brevetted brigadier-general of the 
regular army; served under Pope at the second Bull Run, 
failing to attack Jackson’s flank, he was charged by Pope 
with losing the battle by treachery. Porter was court- 
martialed and cashiered from the army; the case was 
appealed; a re-hearing was had which found him blame¬ 
less ; President Arthur remitted part of the sentence. A 
bill restoring him to the regular army with the rank of 
colonel, was signed by Cleveland, 1886. 

Prentiss, Gen. Benjamin Mayberry, born in Wood 
County, W. Va., Nov. 23, 1819; served in the Mexican 
War; entered the Civil War as brigadier-general, May, 
1861; transferred to Mo., and defeated the Confederates 
at Mt. Zion; captured at Shiloh; fought Homes and 


Cummings' PJncyclopmdia. 


845 


Price in Arkansas, and defeated them at Helena, July 
* 8, 1868; resigned his commision, Oct. 1863, and retired. 

Price, Gen. Sterling, born in Prince Edward 
County, Va., Sept. 11, 1809; died at St. Louis, Mo., 
Sept. 29, 1867; joined the Confederate forces in Mo., 
defeated Lyon at Wilson’s Creek; served throughout the 
war, principally with Van Dorn. 

Pulitzer, Joseph, born in Buda Pesth, Hungary, 
April 10, 1847 ; came to this country and associated him¬ 
self with Carl Shurz, in publishing the Westliche Post; 
founded the St. Louis Post Despatch , 1878; purchased 
the World , 1883; elected to Congress, 1884, serving but 
a few months. 

Quay, Mathew Stanlay, born in Dillsburg, York 
County, Pa., Sept. 30, 1833; graduate of Jefferson Col¬ 
lege; admitted to the bar, 1854; prothonotary of Beaver 
County, 1855-61; entered the war, winning a lieuten- 
antcy and the commission of colonel; resigned, Aug. 
1862, to become Governor Curtin’s private secretary; 
edited the Beaver Radical, 1869 ; secretary of the common¬ 
wealth of Pa., 1873-78; Recorder of Philadelphia, 1878- 
79; again secretary of Pa., 1879-82; treasurer of Pa., 
1885-87; elected U. S. Senator, 1887, and re elected, 
1893; candidate for the Presidential nomination on the 
Republican ticket, receiving the vote of Pa., in the con¬ 
vention, 1896. 

Quimby, Gen. Isaac Ferdinand, born near Morris¬ 
town, N. J., Jan. 29, 1821; graduated at U. S. Military 
Academy, 1843; served in the Mexican War; made 
brigadier-general of volunteers, and assigned to com¬ 
mand in Columbus, Aug. 2, 1862; with Grant at Vicks¬ 
burg; resigned his commission, Dec. 31, 1863; author of 
Differential and Integral Calculus . 


346 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 

R. 

Ramsey, Gen. George Douglas, born in Dumfries, 
Va., Feb. 21, 1802; died in Washington, May, 1882; 
graduated at West Point. 1820; served in the Mexican 
War; commanded at the Washington arsenal at the 
breaking out of the Civil War, with rank of lieutenant; 
made brigadier-general, and chief of ordnance of U. S. 
Army, 1864 ; retired 1864, with the rank of major-general 
of the regular army. 

Randall, Samuel Jackson, born in Philadelphia, 
Oct. 10, 1828; served in the City Councils, and in the 
State Legislature; elected to Congress, re-elected, and 
served continuously until his death, April 4, 1890; 
leader of the Democrats in Congress, and three times 
Speaker of the House. 

Ransom, Gen. Thomas Edward G., born in Nor¬ 
wich, Yt., Nov. 29, 1834; died Oct. 29, 1864; partici¬ 
pated at Fort Henry and Donelson, where he was 
severely wounded; wounded again at Shiloh; made 
brigadier-general, 1864, and engaged in the Red River 
campaign, and again severely wounded at Sabine Cross 
Roads; received the brevet of major-general, and at¬ 
tempted to pursue Hood, but in a short time died from 
his wounds. 

Rawlins, Gen. John Aaron, born in East Galena, 
111., Feb. 13, 1831; died in Washington, Sept. 9, 1869; 
served with Grant throughout the war, and rose to the 
rank of major-general in the U. S. A., 1865; Secretary 
of War, March 4, 1869, and served until his death. 

Reed, Thomas Brackett, Speaker of the House of 
Representatives, born in Maine, Oct. 18, 1839; graduate 
of Bowdoin, 1860; paymaster in the U. S. Navy, 1864- 
65; lawyer; served in both houses of the Maine legisla¬ 
ture; attorney-general of Maine two years, and city 


Cummings ’ JEncyclopoedia. 


347 


solicitor of Portland four years; elected to Congress, 
1876, and has served continuously since. He is Speaker 
of the House, and is prominently mentioned for the 
Presidency, 1900. 

Peno, Gen. Jesse L., born in Wheeling, Va., June 
20,1823 ; killed at South Mountain, Sept. 14.,1862; grad¬ 
uated at West Point, 1846; served in the Mexican War; 
served as colonel in Burnside’s army; made brigadier- 
general of volunteers in the fall of 1862; fought at sec¬ 
ond Bull Run and at Chantilly; led the ninth army 
corps at South Mountain, where he was killed. 

Reynolds, Gen. John Fulton, born in Lancaster, 
Pa., 1820; hilled at Gettysburg, July 1, 1863; gradua¬ 
ted at West Point, 1841; served in the Mexican War; 
entered the Civil War as lieutenant-colonel, and was 
soon promoted to brigadier-general of volunteers ; served 
in the army of the Potomac, and saved the Union army 
from total disaster at second Bull Run; promoted to ma¬ 
jor-general of volunteers, 1862, succeeding Hooker in 
command of the first army corps; commanded the left 
wing at Gettysburg, where he was killed by a rifle ball. 

Richardson, Gen. Israel B., born in Fairfax, Yt., 
Dec. 15, 1815; died at Sharpsburg, Md., of wounds re¬ 
ceived at Antietam; graduated at West Point, 1841; 
served in the Indian wars and the Mexican War; entered 
the Civil War as colonel of the second Michigan infan¬ 
try; fought at Bull Run, and in the Peninsula cam¬ 
paign, South Mountain and Antietam, winning the rank 
of major-general of volunteers. 

Ricketts, Gen. James Brewerton, born in New 
York, June 21, 1817; died at Washington, Sept. 22, 
1887; graduated at West Point, 1839; served in the 
Mexican War, and against the Indians; entered the Civ¬ 
il War and was taken prisoner at Bull Run; brevetted 


848 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


major-general for services in Va., served against Early 
and in the battles before Richmond; made major-gen¬ 
eral, and retired, 1807. 

Rodman, Gen. Isaac P., born in South Kingston, R. 
I., Aug. 18, 1822; died at Sharpsburg, Md., Sept. 30, 
1802; entered the Civil War in command of the fourth 
Rhode Island volunteers; rose to the rank of brigadier- 
general ; received a mortal wound while leading the 
third division of the ninth army corps at Sharpsburg. 

Rogers, Gen. George Clark, born in Piermont, 
Grafton County, N. H., 1838; entered the Civil War; 
was at Shiloh, and in the Atlanta campaign, and rose 
to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers. After 
the war he resumed the practice of law and was, since 
1885, chairman of the board of pension appeals. 

Rosecrans, William Stark, born in Kingstown, O., 
Sept. 6, 1819; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy 
1842; entered the Civil War as colonel of the 23rd Ohio 
volunteers, and on June 10, 1861, was promoted to 
brigadier-general of the United State’s army; com¬ 
manded a division at the siege of Corinth; defeated 
Price at Iuka, Sept. 19, 1862; commanded the army of 
the Cumberland at Murfreesboro October, 1, 1862; lost 
the battle of Chickamauga; transferred to Mo. to oppose 
Price; brevetted major-general at the close of the war; 
resigned from the army, March, 28, 1867; Minister to 
Mexico, 1868; in Congress from California, 1881-85; 
register of the U. S. Treasury, under Harrison. He re¬ 
tired with rank of brigadier-general, and died at Los 
Angeles, Cal., March, 11, 1898. 

Roosevelt, Col. Theodore, born in New York 
City, Oct. 27, 1858; graduated at Harvard, June, 1880; 
elected to the New York Assembly 1881, and re-elected, 
1888, and 1885; defeated for Mayor of New York, 1880; 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 340 

Civil Service commissioner under Harrison; president 
of the Board of Police commissioners under Mayor Strong, 
1895; Assistant Secretary of the Navy, April, 1897, May, 
1898; entered the Spanish-American War as lieutenant- 
colonel of the United States volunteers, famous as the 
“Rough Riders.” Roosevelt won the rank of Colonel 
and the admiration of the American people, for his 
matchless gallantry in the battle of Santiago. He re¬ 
ceived the Republican nomination for Governor of New 
York, Sept. 27 1898. 

Ryan, Gen. William Albert Charles, born in To¬ 
ronto, Canada, March 28, 1843; executed at Santiago, 
Cuba, Nov. 4, 1873; served throughout the Civil War 
in the service of the Union. General Ryan joined the 
Cubans in their war for independence, 1869; was cap¬ 
tured by the Spanish and shot. 

Ruger, Gen. Thomas H. born in New York, 1833; 
graduated at West Point, 1854; served in the Shenan¬ 
doah, as colonel of Wisconsin volunteers; fought at An- 
tietam and Chancellorsville; made brigadier-general 
Nov. 1862; commanded a division at Gettysburg and in 
the Atlanta campaign; commanded a division in the 
Carolines until the surrender of Johnston; brevetted 
brigadier-general U. S. A., 1867 ; afterward served as 
superintendent of West Point; is now retired with 
rank of brigadier-general and resides at Washington, 
March, 1898. 

S- 

Schofield, Gen. John McAlister, born in Chautau¬ 
qua County, N. Y. Sept. 29,1831; graduated at 
West Point, 1853, and instructor there for three 
years; entered the Civil War as brigadier-general of vol¬ 
unteers, serving in Missouri and Kansas; served under 
Sherman till the close of the war ; made brigadier-general, 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


350 

1864; commanded the military district of Va., 1867; 
made major-general of the regular army, 1869; com¬ 
manded the department of Missouri, and Pacific; super¬ 
intendent of West Point, 1876-81; succeeded, on the 
death of Sheridan, to the command of the United States 
army; is now retired. 

Sedgwick, Gen. John, born in Cornwall, Conn., 
Sept. 13, 1813; killed near Spottsylvania Court House, 
Va., May 9, 1864; graduate of U. S. Military Academy, 
1837; fought in the Indian wars and Mexican War; 
entered the army of the Potomac, 1861, as brigadier- 
general of volunteers; wounded at Antietam, but refused 
to be taken from the field, and continued to direct his 
men. While directing his men at Spottsylvania, he was 
shot and instantly killed. 

Sheridan, Gen. Philip Henry, born in Albany, 
March 6, 1831; graduated at West Point, 1853; died in 
Washington, Aug. 5, 1888; entered the Civil War as 
captain and soon rose to the rank of brigadier-general 
of volunteers; served with Halleck. Sheridan served 
throughout the war with great gallantry. His superior 
generalship was exhibited at Stone River, Perryville, 
Chickamauga and his famous Shenandoah campaign. 
He co-operated with Grant in the closing scenes of the 
war as commander of all the cavalry. He visited the 
Franco-Prussian War, 1870; became general-in-chief of 
the army at the retirement of Sherman. In 1888, 
Cleveland signed a bill conferring on him the rank and 
emoluments of general for life. Sheridan was never de¬ 
feated, and certainly history scarce presents his equal 
as a cavalry commander. 

Sherman, Gen. William Tecomseh, born in Ohio, 
Feb. 8, 1820; graduated at West Point, 1840; served 
against the Indians and in the Mexican War; entered 


Cummings' Encyclopcedxa . 


351 


the Civil War as colonel; commanded a brigade at Bull 
Run; made brigadier-general of volunteers, Aug. 1861; 
assigned to the Army of Tennessee, and fought at Shiloh, 
Corinth and Vicksburg, winning the rank of brigadier- 
general of the regular army; fought at Chattanooga, 
and defeated the Confederates at Jackson and Meridan; 
made his celebrated march to Atlanta and the sea, and 
then north through the Carolinas, finally defeating 
Johnston ; made lieutenant-general, 1866, and general on 
Grant’s election to the Presidency, holding the position 
until 1884, when he was retired with full pay; visited 
Europe, 1871-72. Gen. Sherman died in New York, 
Feb. 14, 1891. 

Sherman John, brother of the general, born in 
Lancaster, O., May 10, 1823; lawyer; in Congress, 1854- 
61; in the Senate, 1861-1877 ; Secretary of the Treasury, 
1877-81; in the Senate, 1881-97; the venerable and 
honorable “Premier” of the present administration, 
1898. Sherman is now, Oct. 1898, retired at his home 
in Ohio. 

Sherman, Gen. Thomas W.,born in Newport, R. I., 
March 26, 18.13; died at Newport, March 16, 1879; grad¬ 
uated at West Point, 1836; served in the Mexican War; 
entered the Civil War, and took part in the expedition 
against the southern ports; commanded a division in 
Tenn., and the department of the Gulf; served in the 
attack on Port Hudson, where he lost a leg; re ired, 
1870, with rank of major-general. 

Seward, William Henry, born at Florida, Orange 
County, N. Y., May 16; died at Albany, N. Y., Oct. 
10, 1872; lawyer; in the state senate, 1830-34; governor 
of N. Y., 1838-42; in U. S. Senate, 1849-61; Secretary 
of State, 1861-69; wounded by an assassin on the night 
of Lincoln’s assassination; negotiated the purchase of 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


351 

Alaska from Russia; made a toOr of the world, 1870-71. 

Shields, Gen. James, born in Dungannan, Ireland, 
1810; died in Ottumwa, Iowa, June, 1879; judge in Ill., 
1843; won a brigadier-generalship in the Mexican War; 
governor of Oregon, 1848; U. S. Senator from Ill., 1849- 
55; U. S. Senator from Minn. 1858-61; served in the 
Civil War; was severely wounded at Kernstown. Gen. 
Shields was the idol of two countries, the hero of two 
wars, and had the distinction of serving three different 
states in the United States Senate, viz.—Illinois, Min¬ 
nesota and Missouri. 

Shepley, Gen. George Foster, born at Saco, Me., 
Jan. 1, 1819; lawyer; entered the Civil War as Colonel 
with Gen. Butler; became a brigadier-general; was mili¬ 
tary governor of La., 1862-64; U. S. Circuit Judge, of 
the First Circuit,1871. 

Sickles, Gen. Daniel Ephraim, born in New York, 
Oct. 20, 1822; lawyer; in N. Y. Senate, 1855; in Con¬ 
gress, 1856-60; entered the Civil War as colonel, rose to 
the rank of brigadier-general, Sept. 1861; did gallant 
service at Antietam, Fredericksburg and Chancellors- 
ville ; commanded an army corps at Gettysburg where he 
lost a leg; made major-general of volunteers, 1862; 
retired from the service, 1869; Minister to Spain, 1870- 
74. Sickles is an active Democrat of New York, and 
has recently served in Congress. 

Sigel, Gen. Franz, born in Baden, Nov. 8, 1824; 
served in the German wars for unity; came to America, 
1850; entered the Civil Wafas Colonel of Mo. volun¬ 
teers ; served in the Missouri campaign, winning the 
rank of brigadier-general; commanded the Department 
of W. Va., 1864; elected register of the City of New 
York, 1871. 

Slocum, Gen. Henry Wadsworth, born in Syracuse, 


Cummings ’ Encyclopcedia. 


353 


N. Y., Sept. 24, 1827; graduated at West Point, 1852; 
took part with McDowell at Bull Run, where he was 
wounded ; served in the Peninsular campaign, and at 
second Bull Run, winning the major-generalship; com¬ 
manded the twelfth army corps at Fredericksburg, Chan- 
cellorsville and Gettysburg; at the latter battle he com¬ 
manded Meade’s right; was with Sherman until the 
surrender of Johnston; served several terms in Congress 
from Brooklyn. 

Smith, Gen. Charles Ferguson, born in Pa., 1805; 
died at Savannah, April 25,1862; graduated at West 
Point, 1825; served in the Mexican War; entered the 
Civil War and rose to the rank of biigadier-general of 
volunteers, and later major-general. 

Smith, Gen. Charles H., born in Eastport, Me., 
1827 ; entered the Civil War and did service as a cavalry 
officer under Sheridan; brevetted major-general U. S. 
A., for gallant and meritorious service during the war. 

Smith, Gen. Edmund Kirby, born at St. Augustine, 
Fla , 1825; graduated at West Point, 1845; served with 
Taylor in the Mexican War; professor at West Point, 
1849-52; made brigadier-general in Confederate army, 
1861; commanded the Confederate Department of East 
Tenn., as major-general, 1862; made lieutenant-general, 
Oct. 1862, and fought at Stone River and Murfreesboro; 
surrendered to Gen. Canby at Baton Rouge, May 26, 
1865. 

Stanley, Gen. David S., born in Wayne County, 

O. . June 1, 1828; graduated at West Point; entered the 
Civil War, and c;id service as a cavalry officer; brevetted 
major-general U. S. A., March 1865. 

Stanton, Edwin McMaster, born at Steubenville, 
O.. Dec. 19, 1814; died at Washington, Dec. 24, 1869; 
lawyer; became Attorney-general; succeeded Cameron 


354 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


as Secretary of War, Jan. 1862; appointed judge of the 
U. S. Supreme Court, Dec. 20, 1869, and died four days 
afterward. 

Steele, Gen. Frederick, born at Delhi, N. Y., Jan. 
14, 1819; died at San Mateo, California, Jan. 12, 1868; 
graduate of West Point, 1843; served in the Mexican 
War; entered the Civil War as colonel of the 8th 
Iowa infantry; served throughout the war and won the 
rank of brigadier-general in the regular army. 

Steedman, Gen. James B., born in Northumberland, 
Pa., July 30, 1818; died at Toledo, Oct. 18, 1883; 
entered the Civil War as colonel of the 4th Ohio infan¬ 
try; won the rank of major-general at Chickamauga; 
served as collector of internal revenue, and was in the 
Ohio legislature, 1879. 

Stevens, Gen. Isaac Ingalls, born at Andover, 
Mass., March 28, 1818; killed at Chantilly, Sept. 1, 
1862; graduate of West Point, 1839; served in the Mex¬ 
ican War; became governor of Washington Territory, 
1853; entered the Civil War as colonel of 79th New 
York volunteers; served in the Peninsular and under 
Pope; made major-general July 4, 1862, and was killed 
in a charge at Chantilly, with General Kearney. 

Stevenson, Gen. Thomas G., born in Boston, Feb. 
3, 1836; killed at Spottsylvania Court House, May 10, 
1864; entered the Civil War, and served principally 
in the Carolinas; made brigadier-general, 1863; killed 
in command of the ninth army corps, at Spottsylvania. 

Stewart, Alexander Turney, born in Belfast, Ire¬ 
land, Oct. 12, 1803; died in New York, April 10, 
1876; came to New York and amassed a fortune 
in the dry goods business, his 6ales amounting to 
$50,000,000 per year. Mr. Stewart 6ent ship loads 
to Ireland during the famine, and a ship load of flour to 


Gumming *’ Encyclopedia. 


855 


France during the Franco-Prussian War. He contri¬ 
buted $50,000 to the Chicago fire sufferers. Stewart 
left an estate of $40,000,000. 

Stone, Gen. Charles P., born in Greenfield, Mass., 
Sept. 80, 1824; died. 1887; graduated at West Point, 
1845; served in the M-xican War; entered the 
Civil War and operated near Washington; arrested 
Feb. 9, 1862, and imprisoned until August; no 

charge being preferred, be was released and g veil 
his command, 1863; assign* d to the Depa'tment 
of the Gulf; mustered out <f service with the rank 
of brigadier-general, April l, 1864; served in the Egyp¬ 
tian army. 1870-83. 

Stoneman, Gin. George, horn in Chautauqua 
County, N. Y., Aug. 8, 1822; graduated at West Point, 
1846; entered ihe Civil War at its outbreak as a cavalry 
commander; served in the Army of the Pot mac and 
with Sherman, winning the rai k of major-general; 
elected governor of California, 1883. 

Stuart, Gen. James Ewell Brown, born in Patrick 
County, Va., Feb. 6, 1^33; died at Richmond, Va., 
June 12, 1*64; joined the Confederate army, and rose to 
the rank of general; fought with Jackson and Lee, and 
was ! 0 the Confederate cavalry what She idan was to 
the Union; was completely de'eated by Sheridan in 
the Shenandoah. 

Sweeney. Gen. Thomas William, born inCotk, Ire¬ 
land, Dec. 25. 1820; died. 1892; served in the Mexican 
War, and against the Indians; ent red the Civil War at 
its outbreak as captain, and served throughout, winning 
the rank of biigadier-general. 

Sturgess, Gen. Samuel Davis, horn in Shippens- 
burg, Pa., 1822; died, 1889; graduat d at W s Point, 
1846; served in the Mexican War; entered the Civil 


Cumminys * Encyclopedia. 


856 

War with Lyon in Mo., served as commander of 
cavalry, and won the brevet of major-general in 
the United States Army. 

Sampson, Rear Admiral, Wm. T., born at Palmyra, 
N. Y,, 1840; graduated from Annapolis, I860; assigned 
to the Potomac and later to the John Adams; instructor 
at A mapods, LS »3 64; bl > vn up with the Pat tpsco in 
Charleston harbor, Jan. 15, 1865; lieutenant-commander 
of the flagship Colorado, European squadron, 1866; 
superintendent of Annap dis, 1887-90; commanded the 
San Francisco, 1891; commanded the Iowa , 1892; 

chief of b treau of naval ordiuanc , 1893-97; president 
of the court of inquiry of Marne disaster; con manded 
the North Atlantic squadro i in the bomb rdment of 
Santiago, S »nnish-Ameriean War; promoted to tear- 
admiral, 1898. 

Schley, Rear Admiral Winfield Scott, born : n 
Marylai d; graduated at the United S’ates Naval Acad¬ 
emy, 1860: served with cl aracteristic dating throughout 
the Civil War ; won t he pi • udits of t he world for his re-cue 
of exp'orrr Greely and his crew, 1884. SchLy botiL d 
Cervera in Santiago Bay, and personally con manded 
the famous sea Oglit in which the Spanish fleet was 
totil y destroyed Ju y 3, 1898. F >r his gallant service 
he was promoted to rear admiral. 

T. U. V 

Terry, Gen. Alfred Howe, bum in Hartford, 
Cm., N >v. 10, 1827; died, 1830; entered the Civil 
War, and soon rose to the rank of brigadier, and major- 
general; captured Fort Fisher, in conjunction with 
Admiral Por r er. Terry succeeded Hancock ns general 
of the U. S. Army, 1888. 

Thomas, Gen. George Henry, born in Southhamp- 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 857 

ton County, Va., July 81, 1816; died in San Francisco, 
May 28. 1870; graduated at West Point, 18-10; served 
in the Indian wais and in the Mexican War; instructor 
of artillery at West Point, 1851-54; entered the Civil 
War and was made hr gadier-general of v<lunte*rs 
in Aug. 1SG1; commanded a division of the army of 
the Ohio, and defeat* d the Confederates at Mill Spring 
Jan 1862; commanded the right v irg of the army of 
Tennessee at Corinth ; c« ir.mm d« d the f< urttenth corps 
of the Cumberland, and did gallant service at Stone 
River and Chief amauga; made brigai ier-general of U. 
S. Army Oct. 1868, and given the command of the 
Department of army of the Cumberland: crushed Hood's 
army at Nashville ; for his m rvices he received ti e rank 
of major-general U. S. Aimy, and the that ks of Congress. 

Underwood, John William, born in Ga., Nov. 20, 
1816; died in Rome, Ga., July 18, If88; lawj’er; in 
Congress, 1861; judge of Rune, Ga., 1874; member of 
Pre sidenf Arthur’s Tariff Commission. 

VanDorn, Gen. Earl, born in Miss., 1823; died in 
Maury County, Tenn. at the hands of a Dr. Lowery, May, 
1863; graduated at West Point, 1842; entered the ser¬ 
vice of the Confederacy, and fought at Pea Ridge, 
Corinth and elsewhere, winning the rank of major- 
general. 

Yoorhees, Daniel W., born in Butler County, O., 
Sept. 26, 1827; died, 1897; celebrated lawyer; in Congn ss, 
1861-66; and 1869-72; in U. S. Senate 1 r< m Ind., 1877, 
and served continuously until his death. 

W, X. Y. Z 

Walker, Gen. William H. T., born in Ga., Oct., 
1816; killed at Decatur, Gt., July 26, 1861; graduated 
at West Point, 1837; served in the Indian wars, and in 


858 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


the war with Mexico; joined the Confederate army and 
rose to the rank of major-general. 

Wallace, Gen. Lewis, born in Brookville, Ind., 
April 10, 1827; served as lieutenant in the Mexican 
War; entered the Civil War and served in Va. ; made 
major-general of volunteers for services at Fort Donel- 
son; commanded the middle department with head-quar¬ 
ters at Baltimore; was badly beaten by Eaily at Mono- 
cacy, July 9, 1864; governor ot Utah, 1878-81; Minister 
to Turkey, 1881-85; author of The Fair Hod, Btn llur , 
and The B<>yJu>od of Christ ; now, March, 1898, practic¬ 
ing law and writing. 

Ward, Gen. John Henry IIobert, born in New 
York, 1823; served with conspicuous gallantry through¬ 
out the war: bears wounds received in the Mexican 
War, at Spottsylvania and Gettysburg. 

Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, born in Augusta, Ga., 
1836: graduate of the United States Military Academy, 
1859; entered the Confederate army, winning the com¬ 
mission of major-general, 1863; commanded the cavalry 
at ChicKamauga; deft ated and captured Stoneman, 
July 1864; served under J. E. Johnson until clo^e of 
the war; made lieutenant-general, July 28, 1865. Gen. 
Wheeler servt d several terms in Congress. He was 
made m jor-general of the United States volunteers in 
the Spanish-Ameriean War. At the battle of Santiago 
General Wheeler was in the thickest of the fight, hav¬ 
ing left a sick bed to lead his men to bat le. 

Webb, Gen. Alexander Stewart, born in New 
York, Feb. 15, 1835; graduated at the U. S. Military 
Academy, 1855; served three years as professor in West 
Point; entered the Civil War as major of the first Rhode 
Island artillery; served at Bull Run, and in the Penin¬ 
sular campaign; entered the battle of Gettysburg as 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 859 

brigadier-general of volunteers, and was wounded; se¬ 
verely wounded again at Spottsylvania, May, 1864; 
brevetted brigadier and major-general of U. S. Army, 
March 13, 18(55; became president of the College of the 
City of New York; The Peninsula , McClellan's Cam¬ 
paign of 1862 , came from his pen, 1882. 

Webster, Gen. Joseph D., born in New Hampshire, 
Aug. 25, 1811; died in Chicago, March 12, 1876; served 
in the Mexican War; made colonel of the first Illinois 
artillery, 1862 ; served under Grant; resigned from the 
army 1865, with rank of major-general of volunteers; 
became revenue collector and sub-treasurer, at Chicago. 

Weed, Gen. Stephen H., born in New York, 1834; 
killed at Gettysburg, July 2, 1863; graduated at West 
Point, 1854; enter, d the Civil War, served in the Penin¬ 
sular campaign at Chancellorsville; was promoted to 
brigadier-general of volunteers, and killed in the second 
day’s fight at Gettysburg. 

Weitzel, Gen. Godfrey, born in Cincinnati, 0., 
1834; died, March 19, 1884; graduated at West Point, 
1855; served under Butler and,Banks at New Orleans; 
served with the army of the Potomac, winning the rank 
of brigadier-general; made major-general of volunteers, 
1866; lieutenant-colonel of the regular army, 1882. 

Willard, Frances E., born in Churchville, New 
York, Sept. 28, 1839; died in New York, Feb. 18, 1898; 
became famous as an apostU of temperance; at her death 
she was president of the World’s W. C. T. U., and the 
W. C. T. U. of America. 

Wood, Gen. Thomas John, born in Munfordville, 
Ky., Sept. 25, 1823; graduated at U. S. Military Acad¬ 
emy; served in the Mexican War and in the Indian 
wars; made brigadier-general of volunteers, Oct. 1861, 
and commanded a division in Miss, and Tenn., serving 


360 


Curnmings ’ Pncyclopcedia. 


in the battles of Shiloh and Corinth ; wounded at Stone 
River, Dec. 31, 1862; served in the army of the Cum¬ 
berland; again wounded at Lovejoy’s Station, Sept. 
1864; received the brevet of brigadier-general in the U. 
S. Army, for services at Chickamauga, and the brevet of 
major-general for gallantry at Nashville; is now, March 
1898, retired with rank of brigadier-general, and lives 
at Dayton, Ohio. 

Yates, Richard, born in Warsaw, Ky., Jan. 18, 
1818; lawyer; served in the Illinois legislature; in Con¬ 
gress, 1851-55; “War governor” of Ill., 1861-65; in the 
United States Senate, 1865-71. 

Young, John Russell, born in Dowington, Chester 
County, Pa., Nov. 20, 1841; famous as a war correspon¬ 
dent; fora time editor of the Philadelphia Press ; ac¬ 
companied Grant around the world; has served as Min¬ 
ister to China; has published some splendid works; is 
the author of Arovnd the World with General Grant; 
now, March, 1898, Librarian of Congress. 

Zollicoffer, Gen. Felix Kirk, born in Maury 
County, Tenn., May 19, 1812; died near Mill Spring, 
Ky., Jan. 19, 1862; edited the Columbia Observer ; en¬ 
tered the Confederate service as brigadier general, July 
9, 1861; killed in the battle of Mill Spring. 


Universal History. 

ANCIENT AND MODERN. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. (B. C., 3,000—A. D. 476). 

The Orient — Greece — Rome. 

THE OKIENT. 

Egypt — Chaldea — Assyria — Judea — Phenicia. 

ANCIENT EGYPT (B. C. 3,000—B. C. 332). 

Egypt, “The Gift of the Nile,” is perhaps the old¬ 
est of the old countries of which history takes note. 
The Egyptian of pre-historic times, was, no doubt, a 
wanderer from the fertile valley around the Persian 
Gulf. Scholars, however, have honored the Egyptian 
with a race-name all his own, Hamite. 

Menes, B. C. 3,000, was the first King of Egypt. 
The period of the old Empire, which extended down to 
B. C. 2,080, saw in the 25th century, the completion of 
the pyramids by Svphis. The seat of the Monarchy was 
at Memphis, in lower Egypt. The old Empire soon became 
divided; numerous Kingdoms sprang into existence; of 
these the greatest was Thebes, in Upper Egypt; the Em¬ 
pire was tottering, and it finally fell before the invad¬ 
ing Hyksos (The Shepherd Kings), B. C. 2,080. 

hyksos (B. C. 2,080—1525). 

The Shepherd Kings, coining from Arabia, invaded 
lower Egypt; destroyed Memphis and conquered Thebes, 
and permanently established their kingdom, 1,900 B. C. 

m 


862 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


The period of the Hykecs’ rule, covering five centuries, 
saw the coming of Abram (B. C. 1,950), and the entrance 
of Jacob and his family. It was in this reign that many 
events of biblical interest occurred. The Shepheid Kings 
■were defeated and driven out by a Theban Prince, 1525. 

THEBAN (1525—525). 

The early reign of the Thtbes (1525 to 1200) was 
one of great advanotm* nt; it saw the completion of the 
Temple of Thebes , and the conquests of King Raineses 
II. From the 12th to the 6th century the Theban Dy¬ 
nasty declined until it was conquered by the Persians 
under Cambysses , 525. This reign also saw many im¬ 
portant events which are recorded in sacred history; as 
the flight of Moses, and the drowning of Pharo in the 
Red Sea. 

PERSIAN—GRECIAN—ROMAN. 

The Persians ruled Egypt until conquered by the 
Greeks under Ahxander the Great in 332. Alexander 
founded on the shores of the Mediterranean, anew'capi¬ 
tal and center of learning, Alexandria. 

Ptolemy , one of Alexander’s generals, was given 
Egypt oir rather took it as his part of the great empire 
at the early death of Alexander. Cleopatra, the last of 
Ptolemys, died by her own hand upon the invasion and 
conquest of the Romans, B. C. 30. 

CHALDEA—A SSYRIA—JUDEA—PHENI CIA. 

CHALDEA OR BABYLONIA. 

Of Chaldea or Early Babylonia, which was settled 
by a biblical people, we have the earliest mention in 
Genesis: “And it came to pass, as they journeyed from 
the East, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar 
and they dwelt there.’’ Nimrod W'as first King of Chal- 


Cummings' Encyclopedia* 


863 


dea. The Chaldeans were Semites , and it was of their 
tribe that Abram came. The seat of the Dynasty was at 
Babylon. Wandering tribes from Chaldea settled in the 
Upper Tigris country, Assyria ; they grew in power and 
finally (1250) conquered Chaldea. 

ASSYRIA. (1*250—625). 

The Assyrian Dynasty grew in power and extent; it 
b< came a Confeder tion of Kingdoms, including Chal¬ 
dea, Phenicia and Egypt. The Confederation, which 
began to crumble in the 7th century, was conquered 
(625) by the Babylonians, and their magnificent Nine¬ 
veh destroyed. 

BABYLONIA (625-538). 

This short reign saw the glory of Babylon ; the con¬ 
quest of Ty>e and f Jtrust lem, by King N» buchadnezzar, 
and the total destiuction of Babylon during the reign of 
Bebhazzar, in 538, B. C., by the conque ing Persians, 
under Cyrus. The Persians, two centuries later, were 
conquered by Alexander, who was cut off suddenly as 
he was about to enter upon the task of nstoiing Baby¬ 
lon to its former grandeur. 

• JUDEA. 

Abraham was the father of the Jewish people; 
their history may be said to begin at the “Exodus,” 
132<b Judea became an important kingdom in 1095, 
with Saul as its King. Bavid, son-in-law* of Saul, suc¬ 
ceeded him. During the reign of David the Kingdom 
was greatly enlarged by conquest. In 1015, Solomon , 
son of David, became King. Solomon married the 
daughter of Pharaoh and gave to his people a reign of 
great wisdom. 

Upon the death of Solomon, the kingdom fell to 


364 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


pieces; a kingdom was set up at Samaria, called the 
Kingdom of Israel ; another at Jerusalem, called The 
Kingdom of Judah. Thus divided, Judea fell before 
the armies of Nebuchadnezzar, 586, and the people were 
carried as captives to Babylon. On the fall of Babylon, 
Cyrus ordered their release. They regained their inde¬ 
pendence from the rule of the Ptolemies, in B. C. 166, 
only to lose it again to the Romans under Pompey 
(B. C. 63,) who destroyed Jerusalem. 

PHENICIA—HINDOOSTAN—PERSIA. 

PHENICIA. 

The Phenicians ( Semites) who occupied that nar¬ 
row strip along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean 
Sea, became the first commercial people of the Orient. 
In Government the} 7- were usually subject to the more 
powerful Oriental nations. The Phenicians reached 
the height of their glory between the 10th and 8th cen¬ 
turies. Tyre was their chief city, while Carthage , a 
colony on the African coast, also became an important 
city. 

HINDOOSTAN-PERSIA. 

The Hindoos ( Aryans) settled in India B. C. 3,000, 
and by a mixture with the natives have about lost their 
identity. 

The Medes and the Persians occupied the table- 
land of the Zagros. The Medes came into prominence 
on the establishing of the Median Monarchy, by Cyax- 
ares, 625. Cyrus of Persia was a son of a Medean 
and Persian alliance; he became King of the united 
country, and it was before his armies that Babjdon fell 
in 558. Darius I, became King in 521 and during his 
reign invaded Greece where he fought the battle of Mar¬ 
athon , 490 . 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. $65 

ANCIENT GREECE. 

The Dorians invaded the Hellenes, coming down 
from the foot-hills of Mount iEtna, and conquered the 
Achceans, who in turn conquered the Ionians and drove 
them north. The Ionians joined their brethren at Atti¬ 
ca. The Dorians and the Ionians now became the two 
great factors in Grecian History. Important Grecian 
history begins with the establishment of the Olympia, a 
great national festival, in 776. The Doiians founded 
Sparta and the Ionians, Athens. 

Persian Invasion. Darius, King of Persia, in¬ 
vaded Greece and a fierce battle was fought at Mara¬ 
thon, in which Darius wms defeated, 490. 

Thermopylae. Xerxes, son of Darius, succeeding to 
the Persian Kingdom,gathered a mighty army of 2,500,000 
men and invaded Greece. At the Pass of Thermopylae . 
a small band of Greeks under Leonidas, held the great 
Persian arniy in check until the secret of the pass was 
betrayed ; when it was found no longer possible to hold 
the pass, Leonidas refused to retreat and was killed. 

Battle of Salamis. A great battle in the Bay of 
Salamis resulted in a complete victory for the Greek 
fleet. 

Battles of Platea and Mycale. Xerxes retired 
to his domain leaving an army of 300,000 men. On 
Sept. 25, 479, Pausanias and Aristides defeated the 
Persians at Platea', the same day the remainder of the 
Persian fleet was defeated at Mycale. This ended for¬ 
ever all Persian invasions. 

Pericles. This great Grecian Statesman aimed at 
the peaceful re-union of his country; he died 429, ere he 
saw the civil war so near at hand. 

Peloponnesian War. This was an eight-year war 
between the cities of Sparta and Athens. Sparta received 


360 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia* 


much aid from her old enemy, Persia. Athens, whose 
armies were everywhere defeated, surrendered, 405. 

Sparta and Thebes. On the defeat of Athens, the 
Spartans bt came despotic; Thebes, a growing power, re¬ 
belled, and organized a formidable army. In a fierce 
battle fought at Lenctra , 371,the Spartans were totally 
defeated; Thebes now became the leading state of the 
Hellenes. 

Philip of Macedoi-t. Philip, son of Amyntas II, on 
assuming the government, at once began an aggressive 
warfare looking to the establishment of Macedonia as 
one of the important States of Greece. His successful 
campaigns ended (338) in the defeat of Athens and 
Thebia, and the complete- domination of Macedonia. 
Phil p hoped to unite the Grecian States, aed for that 
purpose planned an invasion of Prrsia. He was assas¬ 
sinated in 336, before the consummation of his plans. 

Alexander. Alexander the Gr^at, son of Philip, 
.succeeded his father, and faithfully carri* d his plans 
into execution. The story of Alexander’s Conque-ts is 
easilv told; he entered the Ea»t to India, and one after 
another of the Kingdoms fell before his conquering army; 
turning south, Egypt was speedily subdued, and at the 
age of twenty-five years, Alexander was “conqueror of 
the w 7 orld.” He established the great city of Alexan¬ 
dria, in Egvpt, a? d w T as preparing to restore the ancient 
grandeur of Babylon, when he suddenly died, B. C. 323, 
aged 33. On the death of Alexander, the gr« at empire 
fell to pieces. There now ensued a *wnity-year war for 
the spoils of the Empire, by the generals of Alexander’s 
army, resulting in Ptolemy taking Egypt ; Seleucus, 
Persia , and Cassander, Maetdonia . A Gr* ek confeder¬ 
ation was formed by Demosthenes, looking to the freedom 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


367 


of Greece, proper, from Macedonia; it failed of its pur¬ 
pose, and Greece fell before the Roman army, 146, B. C. 

HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME. 

Pagan Era—Christian Era. 

PAGAN ERA. 

The Kingdom—The Pepublic—The Empire. 

THE EARLY KINGDOM. 

The primitive people of Italy were properly divided 
into the Gauls, inhabiting* the region of the Italian side 
of the Alps; the Etruscans „ occupying the country be¬ 
tween the Arno and the Tiber; the Italians , who had 
settled in central Italy, and the Iapygians and Greeks, 
of south-eastern Italy. The Italians were Umbrians, Sa¬ 
bines, Samnites, etc., but it is witn the Latins that Roman 
history deals. Latium was situated between the Tiber 
and the Liris. In B. C. 753, a sma'l village on a plateau 
of the Tiber was joined in a confederation with Luce- 
rum, a village of the Caelian IIill , and Quirium, a neigh¬ 
boring village of the Quirinal Hill. It is all probable 
that this was the beginning and real foundation of “The 
Eternal City,” the fable of Romulus and the she wolf 
notwithstanding. 

The Seven Kings. This period saw the develope- 
ment of society into two classes; the Patricians (Popu- 
lus, the people), the Magistrates, Priests and Rulers; 
the Plebeians , were the laboring class; they possessed 
their freedom, but little else. Servius Tullius, fifth 
King, inaugurated some reforms which granted to the 
Plebeians a share in the government. The last of the 
Kings, Tarquinius Superbus, seeking to rob the people 
of their rights, was driven from the country and the 
kingdom abolished, B. C. 509. 


868 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

THE REPUBLIC. 

Cons traction — Con q u es ts — C ivil Wa r . 

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 

On the banishment of the King, Rome became a 
Republic, with two Consuls as rulers; the first Consuls 
were Lucius Junius Brutus, “Elder Brutus,” and Colla- 
tinus. Trials beset the young Republic on every hand; 
from without by the banished King, and from within by 
the oppressed Plebeians. Civil strife was allayed for 
the time by establishing the Tribune of the Piths ; this 
was a sort of legislative body, consisting first of two, 
and later of ten, members; they had no voice in the 
choice of Consuls, and were not satisfied. In 444 a 
further concession was made in the establishment of the 
Military Tribune’, a body consisting of six, selected 
equally from the Patricians and the Plebeians. 

Gallic Invasion. —In 390, the Gauls pressed toward 
Rome; defeated the Roman army at A Ilia; overran 
Etruria, and capturing Rome, destroyed the city. 

PERIOD OF CONQUESTS. 

Conquest of Italy—Foreign Conquests . 

CONQUEST OF ITALY. 

Stolo and Sextius. —Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sex- 
tius, now became Consuls of Rome ; their rule marked an 
era of great advancement; saw Rome rebuilt; a new and 
liberal Constitution adopted which made Rome in fact, 
as well as in name, a Democratic Republic; in the new 
constitution the Patrician shared with his Plebeian 
brethren the government of the country. 

Samnitk War.—A series of wars now took place 
against the Etruscans , Latins , Samniles , and Gauls. It 


Cummings' Uncyclop cedi a. 


869 


was a war for the conquest of Italy in which the Ro¬ 
mans were entirely successful, B. C. 290. 

War with Pyrrhus. —The Greeks of southern 
Italy, aided by Pyrrhus, a Grecian Prince, defeated the 
Romans at Pandocia, 280, and again at Asculum , 279; 
in a third battle at Beneventam , Pyrrhus was defeated 
266, and the conquest of all Italy was accomplished. 

PERIOD OF FOREIGN CONQUEST. 

First Punic War (264-241). This war was 
fought on and around the Island of Sicily, between the 
Carthaginians and Syracusans, and the Romans, who 
had championed the cause of the natives of the island. 
The Syracusans afterward went over to the Romans. 
The Romans were victorious at Mylae , Panormus and 
JEgusa, An expedition against Carthage, by Regulus, 
proved a failure and Regulus was made prisoner, 255. By 
the terms of peace Carthage paid Rome an indemnity 
of 2,000 talents, about $2,000,000, and surrendered Si¬ 
cily. Sicily was made the first Roman Province. 

Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul (222). These peo¬ 
ple of the Po valley were contemplating an invasion of 
Rome, when they were met by the Roman army and 
completely routed. This, the Alpine country, made two 
more Roman Provinces. 

Second Punic War (218-202). A Carthaginian 
Nobleman, General Hamilcar Barca, burning with ha¬ 
tred toward Rome, invaded Spain, expecting by its sub¬ 
jugation to acquire the means to prosecute a war with 
Rome. Hamilcar was killed in battle and was succeeded 
by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal being assas¬ 
sinated, the command of the Carthaginian army fell to 
Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Hannibal beseiged and 
captured Sayuntum , and then crossed the Alps into 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


370 

Italy. His Italian campaign (217-202) was both bold 
and brilliant: he there displayed a military genius that 
rivaled that of Alexander or Napoleon. He defeated 
the Roman armies in several battles, the greatest of 
which was at Canne , 216. Generals Fabius and Mar¬ 
cellas were no match for him,and there can be no doubt 
that, were he not recalled to defend Carthage against the 
invasion of Scipio, he w T ould have soon completely 
crushed the Roman army and had the Empire at his feet. 

Battle of Zama (202). Publius Scipio, having 
eubdued Spain, now invaded Africa; here he was met 
on the plains of Zama by Hannibal whom he completely 
defeated. The terms of peace exacted a tribute from 
Carthage of $10,000,000 in addition to which she was 
forced to give up her fleet. 

Third Punic War (149). This was but a siege of 
the City of Carthage, by the younger Scipio, resulting 
in its complete destruction. Its 700,000 people were 
massacred, carried into slavery or scattered, and the 
Roman Province of Africa was established. 

Macedon and Greece. Philip V, of Greece, w T as 
defeated at Pydna, 168. The victorious Romans des¬ 
troyed Corinth, 146, and Macedon and Greece became 
the Roman Province of Achaia. It was now “Italy and 
the Provinces.” 

PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE. 

Tiberius Gracchus, a Consul of Rome, a grand¬ 
son of Scipio Africanus, had passed a land law ( Agra¬ 
rian law) a law favorable to the people ; this won him 
the title of “Tribune of the People,” but made enemies 
of the aristocratic party, and as he was about to be re¬ 
elected, he was murdered. At the death of Tiberius, 
Caius Gracchus, his brother, took up his work. The no- 


Cummings' Encyclopedia* 


871 


ble or senatorial party, determined to crush him and 
succeeded in a series of wars known as the Jugvrthint 
War (111 106) ; War ngainst the, Combri (113-101), and 
the Social War (90-89.) These wars brought Sulla and 
Marius into the arena of Roman history; the former as 
leader of the Aristocracy, and the latter of the Democ¬ 
racy. 

Sulla, Marius and Mithrtdates. Mithridates, 
s» eking to unite the Asiatic States and Greece, against 
Rome, caused the slaughter of 80,000 Romans of A-ia 
Minor, in a single day. Marius and Sulla now each 
sought the command of the Roman army; Sulla succeed¬ 
ed, and repaired to the East, whereupon Marius had his 
election set aside; Sulla reti rned to Rome and Marius 
fled to Africa. Sulla again marched to Greece and de¬ 
feated Mithridates and subdued the whole c untry 
(86-84). Finding Sulla in Greece, Marius returned to 
Rome, where, in the name of the people, he massacred 
all the prominent friends of Sulla and proclaimed him¬ 
self consul. Marius died in a short time but his party 
still held the government Sulla hastily concluded a 
treaty with Mithridates and returned to Rome, and 
then began a period of unspeakable carnage. In a fierce 
struggle he overthrew the Marian government, mur¬ 
dered all the leaders of the people, a prosciibed list of 
which he published e »ch day (it is recorded that the 
po ch of Sulla’s house was heaped with the heads of his 
victims), and had himself proclaimed Dictator of Rome 
for an unlimited time. 83 B. C. Sulla organized the 
government wholly in the interest of the aristocratic 
party, and then resigning, retired to private life, and 
died 78 B. C. 

First Eastern Campaign. Pompey was now sent 
to quell a stcond uprising of Mithridates whom he 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


872 

crushed, and then pushed on to the east. He soon ef¬ 
fected the conquest of Phenicia , Syria and Jerusalem ; 
he practically destroyed Jerusalem (63), and returned 
to Rome B. C. 62, “Conquerer of the East.” 

Factions. Pompey now b» came the leader of the Oli¬ 
garchy, with Marcus Tullius Cicero as his colleague; the 
Aristocracy was represented by Crassus; the peo¬ 
ple's, or Marian party, by Caius Julius Caesar, and the 
Military party, by Catiline. Catiline, an old soldier of 
Sulla’s, aspired to the Consulship; Cicero was his suc¬ 
cessful rival; Catiline plotted the murder of Cicero and 
the burning of Rome. The plot was discovered; de¬ 
nounced by Cicero, he fl» d to Gaul where he was slain, 
B. C. 62. Pompey, failing in his party plans, joined 
Caesar, who was s >on joined by Crassus also, and thus 
was formed the “First Triumvirate,” B. C. 60; in 59, 
Caesar was elected Consul. 

Caesar’s Western Campaign. At the expiration of 
the ye tr Caesar was appointed G >vernor of Gaul, and 
then began that remarkable campaign of conquest (58-50) 
in which all that is n >w known as central and southern 
Europe, including the British Isles, was made part of 
the Roman Provinces. The campaign was remarkable 
not onlj r in its victories, but in the fact that the c -n- 
quered joined the army of the conqueror, and would 
have fought to the bitter end for him. 

Pompey and Crassus. At the expiration of their 
term as Consul, Pompey received the proconsulship of 
Spain, and Crassus that of the East; Crassus being mur¬ 
dered at Parthia, the triumvirate was changed to 
durnvirate. 

Pompey and Caesar. An enmity now sprang up 
between Csesar and Pompey; Pompey went over to the 
aristocratic party, and had himself made sole Consul, 52, 


/ 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 873 

B. C. He requested the surrender of Ctesar’s command 
B. C. in 49. Caesar offered to surrender his command if 
Pompey would surrender the Dictatorship; the senate re¬ 
fused the offer, and Caesar was ordered to lay down his 
command and disband his army. In B. C. 49, Caesar 
gathered his aimy around him and marched from Ravenna 
to the Rubicon, a small stream that divided the province 
he commanded, from Italy; here he displayed no little hes¬ 
itation; finally declaring ‘‘The die is ca^,” he crossed the 
Rubicon. Pompey now fled to the East; Caesar made 
himself Dictator of Rome for one year, 48. Pompey 
had now gathered a mighty army in Thessaly, and pre¬ 
pared to march on Rome. Caesar met and completely 
defeat* d his army at Pharsalia, and pursued him to 
Ah xandria, where a messenger from Ptohmy brought 
him Pompey’s head. Caesar was disgusted at this and 
ordered it to be burhd with costly spicts. 

CiESAR in Egypt. Caesar now invaded Egypt where 
he fell in love with Queen Cleopatra. By the custom of 
the country Cleopatra was married to her brother, King 
Ptolemy, with whom she was engaged in a quarrel. 
Caesar interfered in her behalf, a war with Ptolemy 
ensued. In the war that followed the great Alexandrian 
library was destroyed; Ptolemy killed and Cleopatra 
crowned queen. Caesar next marched into Pontus and 
defeated Pharnaces. Of this campaign we have his fam¬ 
ous description : Veni, vidi, vici —, “I came, 1 saw, I con¬ 
quered.” Caesar now turned to the Roman province of 
Africa, where there still remained a Pompeian army 
under command of Scipio and Cato. These he defeated 
at Thapsus , 46; Scipio and Cato killed themselves. A 
l»st rally of the Pompeians at Munda, Spain, March, 
45, with the usual result. Ctesar was now the undis- 
pitted monarch of the mighty empire of Rome. 


874 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Caesar at Peace. Caesar was made Dictator first 
for ten years and then for life ( Imperator , Cmmander). 
Julius Caesar was truly great, and he now threw his 
mighty intellect into the work of building up his beloved 
Rome. He w r as scare* ly yet entered upon the w 7 ork of 
reconstruction, when he was stabbed to death in the 
Senate by his pretended friends, Caius Cassius and 
Marcus Brutus. As he saw the steel flashing in the 
hands of Brutus, he gave up the struggle, crying: 
“ What! thou too , Brutus!" he fell at the foot of the 
statue of Pompey, the victim of the most dastardly 
murder yet recorded in history. As a Statesman and 
General, and Scholar, too, Caesar takes the very first 
place in Roman history; he had no peer. 

Second Triumvirate. Mark Antony’s oration on 
the death of Caesar so intensified the p* ople that Brutus 
and Cassius w T ere compelled to fly. The claimant to 
Caesar’s power was his great-nephew 7 , Caius Octavius, 
whom Caesar had adopted as his son, Caius Julius Caesar 
Octavaianus. Antony, Octavius and Lepidus, associated 
themselves together as the second triumvirate, 43, B. C. 
All who opposed their schemes w T ere murdered, among 
them Cicero, who had denounced them fearlessly. 

Battle of Philippi. Brutus and Cassius, who had 
retired to Thrace, succeeded in raising an army of 100,- 
000 men, intending to invade Rome. Antony with an 
army met them at Philippi. The Roman army was 
victorious and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves. 
The victors now divided Rome; Antony taking the East , 
Octavius, Rome and the West, and Lepidus, Africa. 

Antony and Cleopatra. Antony was now located 
at Alexandria, where he fell in love with Cleopatra. He 
soon divorced himself from Octavia, 6ister of Octavius, 
married Cleopatra, and bestowed Roman provinces upon 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 075 

her. Octavius now declared war on Antony. In the 
midst of the naval battle of Actium off the coast of 
Greece, Cleopatra withdrew with her Egyptian fleet. 
Antony followed, and his fleet and entire force surrend¬ 
ered to Octavius, 31, B. C. Octavius soon advanced on 
Alexandria, which surrendered after a feeble resistance 
by Antony, whose troops abandoned him. Cleopatra 
retired to a monument she had erected. A report reach¬ 
ing Antony of her suicide, he inflicted a mortal wound 
upon himself. Hearing, however, that Cleopatra still 
lived, he caused himself to be carried to her presence 
and died at her feet. Cleopatra, failing to charm Octa¬ 
vius, also committed suicide, 80, B. C. The death of 
Cleopatra ended the Reign of the Ptolemies, and Egypt 
became a Roman province. All the great offices were 
now centered in Octavius, and he became, Augustus 
Caesar, first Emperor of Rome, B. C. 27. 

THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

Birth of Christ. The birth of Christ, from which 
our present time is dated, occurred at the village of Beth¬ 
lehem, in Judea. This was the most momentous event in all 
history, past, present or to come. Here a King indeed, 
was born; a King who builded an empire without the 
smoke of battle; an empire of right, of justice, of moral¬ 
ity; a Kingdom truly great —The Kingdom of Christi¬ 
anity. The Roman Empire was grand, but never great; 
she had won on many a battlefield, had conquered in 
many a war, but now she had entered on a war, one too, 
of her own seeking, that would send her empire crumb¬ 
ling in the dust, never to rise again. A war in which 
the principle of Christianity, defenseless, save in the 
armor of right, would battle to victory against all the 
power mighty Rome could hurl against her. Every 


876 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

martyr whose soul went out for Christianty, was as a 
dagger driven to the heart of the Roman Empire; she 
must fall, she did fall, and the history of her ruin is the 
story of the martyred Christians. Augustus died A. D. 
14. In the reign of Tiberius, 38, our Savior was 
crucified by order of Pontius Pilate, governor of the 
Roman province. The Christians suffered great martyr¬ 
dom under Nero(54-68), and again in the reigns of Dio¬ 
cletian, Maximian and Galerius (284-311), the whole 
power of the Empire was brought to bear to crush 
Christianity and to bolster up their decaying Paganism. 

Constantine, The Great (306-337). Constantine, 
son of Constantius, was the first to embrace Christianity. 
On assuming power he sent forth the “Edict of Milan,” 
which granted full civil rights to the Christians. Rome 
and Christianity prospered under his reign, and Pagan¬ 
ism saw its eternal doom. 

The Fall of Rome. The Goths whose country was 
invaded by the Huns and Tartars (376), crossed the 
Danube, and settled on the Roman frontier; this was 
the beginning of the end. Theodosius (379), forced a 
submission for a time. The sons of Theodosius having 
divided the empire into the Western Empire and the 
Eastern Empire , the Visagoths, western Goths, revolted, 
and, raising an army, they marched to Rome and sacked 
it, A. D. 410. This was followed by a general break¬ 
ing up of the Western empire. Africa too, was lost; 
Genseric of Spain having conquered Carthage, 489. 

Invasion of Attica (451). This fierce Hun, with 
an army of half a million, swept into Gaul where he was 
met by the combined army of Romans, Goths and 
Franks, and defeated at Chalons. He then crossed the 
Alps and pillaged Italy, stopping short of the destruc- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 8T7 

tion of Rome, only. He was prevented from destroying 
the city by the persuasions of Pope Leo. 

Invasion of Genseric (455). This Vandal Chief 
of Africa, sacked the City of Rome without mercy, and 
carried away its richest treasures; thus, after five cen¬ 
turies, the destruction of Carthage was avenged. This 
was virtually the end, and the light of ancient Rome 
went out, A. D. 476. 

SCRAPS OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Sacred — Profane — Miscellaneous. 

Sacked. 

1. First command of God ; “Let there be Light.” 

2. Of Saul it was said; “How are the mighty 
fallen.” 

3. “Though He slay me, I will trust Him,” Job. 

4. God, unto Abrabam, “I am thy shield.” 

5 V Height of Goliath, 9 ft. four inches. 

g. Christ to his Apostles; “I am with you always.” 

7. Some of Christ’s last words on the cross; 
“Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do. 
Today shalt thou be with me in paradise. Woman, 
behold thy son. I thirst. It is finished.” 

8. James was the first Apostle to suffer martyrdom. 

9. At the name of Jesus every knee should bow. 
Paul. 

10. Be not weary in well doing. Paul. 

11. Noah’s ark was 300 cubits, about 500 feet, long; 
took 120 years to build it; the flood lasted 150 days. 

12. Date of the “Passover,” fourteenth day of 
fourth month. 

Profane. 

1. Mythology is a belief in the divinity of the gods. 


878 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


2. Hercules was a physical giant celebrated in 
Greek Mythology. 

3. Trojan War. Paris, son of King Priam, car¬ 
ried off Helen, wife of the Spartan Menelaus. The 
Greeks invaded Asia Minor, destroyed the city of Troy 
and rescued Helen. 

4. Ulysses and Nestor. Ulysses was celebrated 
for his theft of the Trojan Statue of Minerva; Nestor, 
for his wise counsel to the Greeks during the siege of 
Troy. 

5. Atlas. This Titan leader, for his attempt to 
storm heaven, was condemned to support forever the 
vault of heaven; he is represented as bearing up the 
globe. 

6. Other Gods of Mythology. Saturn, god of 
time; represented as holding a scythe. Pluto, god of 
terror; ruler of hades; warden of the grave. Jupiter , 
god of thunder. Neptune , god of the sea. Apollo , son 
of Jupiter, god of music and of song. Vulcan, god of 
fire. Diana , goddess of the moon. Mars , god of war. 
Venus , goddess of love and beauty; represented as 
being assisted by her son, Cupid , with his arrow. Mer¬ 
cury, the god of eloquence. Minerva , goddess of wis¬ 
dom. Vesta, goddess of home. Ceres, goddess of corn 
and agriculture. Bacchus, god of wine. Hymen, god 
of marriage. Iris, goddess of peace. Chloris, goddess 
of flowers. AEolus, god of wind. Boreas, god of the 
northern winds. 


Miscellaneous. 

1. Jerusalem was destroyed in 70, A. D. 

2. The Medes and Persians believed in the infalli¬ 
bility of their laws, hence the saying; “The laws of the 
Medes and Persians altereth not.” 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


870 


8. “Pharos of Alexander 1 '—celebrated light house 
erected oti the island of Pharos, near Alexandria, B. C. 
300 . 

4. Pome’s “seven hills” are: Capitol in e , Palatine , 
Quirinal , Cateline , Virminal , Aventine and Esquiline. 


THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 

The Eastern Empire of Constantinople continued 
after the fall of Rome, and in the reign of Justinian 
reached a position of some prominence in the then poli¬ 
tical chaos, it vv as in the reign of Justinian that th^re 
was a successful compilation of the Roman law, result¬ 
ing in the Civil Code. On the fall of Rome, Odocer, a 
Visagoth, became King of Italy. He was, in fact, 
independent, but was presumed to have received his 
authority from the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire. The 
Ostrogoths, had set up a kingdom on the banks of the 
Black Sea. They being pretend* d allies of the Byzan¬ 
tines, their king, 1 heodoric, was delegated by Zeno, the 
Emperor of the Eastern Empire, to invade Italy and 
bring Odocer under subjection. The enterprise resulted, 
as might be expected, in the overthrow of Odocer and 
the assumption of the crown by Theodoiic. Theodoric’s 
reign lasted for thirty three jears (493-526). The great¬ 
est of the Byzantine rulers, Justinian, after the death 
of Theodoiic, succeeded in a conquest of Rome, and 
the overthrow of the Ostrogoths, 553; Italy was again 
completely under control of the Constantinople govern¬ 
ment. After the death of Justinian, the Lombards of 
central Europe, crossed the Alps, took western Italy, 
and made Pavia their capital, A. D. 568. The Empire 
of the East, however, still exercised a governing influ¬ 
ence over Rome , Ravenna and Naples. Deeiderius, 


880 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


last of the Lombard Kings, was taken into captivity by 
Charlemagne, 774. 

SARACEN CONQUESTS. 

A young nobleman of the East, Mahomet or 
Mahommed , born at Mecca, 570, arose as the founder of 
a new religion; Islnm (salvation). The records, or the 
“Reading” of this new religion was called the Koran. 
Failing to convert his people by peaceful means, he 
took up the sw T ord, and at his death, 632, the far east 
was mainly under the sway of Mohammedanism. His 
successors, Abu-beker , Omar , and others, prosecuted the 
Mohammedan conquests with great success. The 
Byzantine possessions of the east and south fell an 
ea*y prey to the Moslem hosts. An eight-year siege of 
Constantinople (668-675), however, was gallantly and 
successfully defended. Nothing daunted at their fail¬ 
ure to conquer Greece, they invaded northern Africa, 
capturing Gyrene , Tripoli and Carthage , and, 710, 
crossed into Spain. Led by the bold Tarikben-Zaid , 
the Barbarian hosts soon conquered Spain, and leaping 
the Pyrenees, invaded the land of the Frank. The 
Mohammedan chief Abd-el-rahman , now in command, 
was met at Poitiers by an army of Christians, under 
Charles Martel. For seven days the very fate of Chris¬ 
tianity seemed to hang in the balance. At the end of 
the seventh day the Christian hosts were victorious; the 
star of Mohammed went down in the West, and the 
Barbarian was driven from the land of the Christian 
forever. 

EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

This great Emperor, son of King Pepin, was born 
742. His great ambition was the restoration of the 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


881 


Roman Empire, and who can say that his hopes were 
not realized? He first conquered the pagan nations to 
the north, and then turned his attention to the foreign 
Saracen hordes of Spain. Aragon and Navarre were 
speedily subdued. The Lombards of western Italy were 
harassing Rome, and Pope Adrian I, solicited the aid of 
Charlemagne. Crossing to Italy the kingdom of the Lom¬ 
bards was completely obliterated, and their king, Desi- 
derius, imprisoned, 773-74. While kneeling at the altar 
in mass, on Christmas, 800, Pope Leo III crowned him 
Charles I, Caesar Augustus ; “Emperor of the West.” 
This great monarch, whose empire that of Ancient 
Rome at its zenith scarce excelled, was as humble in the 
glory of his triumph, as in the beginning of his career. 
He was a Christian worthy of the name; a friend of his 
people, ever laboring for their betterment. A scholar, 
the foremost in the land, and his reign marks an epoch 
in learning. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, 814. His son 
Louis, who succeeded him, divided the empire among 
his sons. By a treaty signed at Verdun , 843, Italy, 
France and Germany became separated; thus was 
marked the end of the Empire of Charlemagne, and the 
beginning of France and Germany. 

THE FEUD4L SYSTEM. 

The Feudal System was one of the results of the 
wars of conquest in Europe. The conquering chiefs, 
after satisfying themselves, would divide up the land 
and. estates among their freehold followers. This grant 
was the “freehold,” that is, those who received it were 
the absolute owners. Nov/ each of these freeholders 
would grant to their supporters, a portion of their free¬ 
hold; this was th efeudum,, or fief. Thisfeudum, unlike 
the freehold, or allodium , was not an absolute gift, but 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


m 

was conditioned upon the service of the ricipient to the 
giver. The real owner of the feudum was the lord , suzer¬ 
ain, or liege ; the recipient was the vassal, liegeman, or re¬ 
tainer, The system spread throughout Europe and swal¬ 
lowed up most of the land and landed estates. The king 
had his vassals, the vassals their retainers, and so on; 
even the kings were vassals of other kings. Property 
being thus centralized, it necessarily left a large major¬ 
ity out-ide the freehold class, who, by the law of the 
times, w T ere serfs. 

“WARS OF THE CROSS.” 

First Crusade (1096-99). These crusades, which 
were the fruit of the preaching of “Peter the Hermit,” 
had in view the wresting of the Holy Land from the 
rule of the Mo-lern. The first crusade wa-* organized by 
Qodf ey Bouillon, and others. The army number, d 
nearly 600,000; they marched by land and in the long 
journey suffered terrible hardships. They first took 
A»tiock and finally Jerusalem, making it the Latin 
Kingdom of Jerusalem, with G< dfrey B >uillon in charge. 

Second Crcsade (1147-49). The Turkish gover¬ 
nors captured the Christian principality of Ldessa and 
thre atem d Jerusalem, wheieupon the Cl ristians again 
appealed to Europe for assistance, and Conrad III of 
Geimany arc! Louis VII of Frat ce raised an army • f 
300,000, and again set ( ut foi the East, g< ing taer tie 
route of the first crusade. By the tre chery of Emantn 1, 
Emperor of the East, Conrad was bt trayed to the Sultan 
and attacked with great slaughter at Meander. The 
remnant of Conrad's army joined the French, and 
together they maiclud to Jerusalem. An attempt to 
capture Damascus , fail, d, and thus gloomily ended the 
second crusade. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


383 


Third Crusade (1189-92). A young Moslem chief 
named Saladin , arose to great power in the East and 
finally, organizing his people, laid siege and captured 
town after town from the Christians; soon Jerusalem, too, 
fell to the victorious Pagans, 1187. Richard I (Lion- 
hearted) of England, Philip Augustus , of France, and 
Frederick Barbarossa (Red Beard) of Germany, now 
raised armies for a third crusade. The army of Freder¬ 
ick marched overland, while those of France and Eng¬ 
land, went by sea to Palestine. Frederick died while 
bathing in a small stream in Asia Minor, and disorder 
followed; the half of his army only, remained to join 
the French and English before Acre. Many fierce bat¬ 
tles were fought before Acre , which fell, 1191, after a 
siege of almost two yea r s. Soon after the French with¬ 
drew, and Richard negotiated a satisfactory truce with 
Saladin. Other Pilgrimages followed, and, though they 
failed to wrest the Holy Lind from the Pagan, they pre¬ 
served many shrines ai d records, and certainly did an 
undeniable service for Christianity. 

THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. 

The breaking up of the great Empire of Charle¬ 
magne, almost marks the close of the Carlovegian reign. 
Their feeble reign ended 987, and Hugh Capet assumed 
control. 

CAPETIANS. 

This house reigned until 1328. The reign of Philip 
Augustus , in which Normandy and other provinces were 
wrested from King John of England (1180), and the 
reign of Louis IX, who raised France to prominence, 
were the greatest of these monarehs. At the death of 
Charles IV, without male issue, the crown passed to 
Philip Valois , his cousin. 


884 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 


The House of Capet. Hugh Capet, 987; Robert 
I, 996: Henry I, 1031; Philip I, 1060; Louis VI, 1108; 
Louis VII, 1137; Philip II, 1180; Louis VIII, 1223; Louis 
IX, 1226; Philip III, 1270; Philip IV, 1285; Louis X, 
1314; John I, 1316; Philip V, 1316; Charles IV, 1322. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

Early in the reign of Philip VI (1328), Edward 
III of England, laid claim to the French crown. This 
precipitated what is known as the “Hundred Years’ 
War.” 

The Hundred Years’ War. The greatest events 
of this long war, were the battles or Crecy, Poitiers, 
Agincourt, and Orleans, and the matchless patriotism of 
Joan of Arc. By the patriotism inspired by this noble 
Maid of Orleans, England was finally driven from 
France in 1453. In a subsequent campaign the English 
being victorious, this noble, brave young girl was cap¬ 
tured and burned at the stake, without one protest from 
the cowardly king she had served so well. 

The House of Valois. Philip VI, 1328; John II, 
1350; Charles V, 1364; Charles VI, 1380; Charles VII, 
1422; Louis XI, 1461; Charles VIII, 1483; Louis XII, 
1498; Francis I, 1515; Henry II, 1547; Francis II, 
1559; Charles IX, 1574 ; Henry III, 1589. 

There is no doubt that the religious wars that dis¬ 
graced France in the 16th century, were very serious, 
but we have no hesitancy in saying that neither party 
were as black as some bigoted writers, who call them¬ 
selves historians, have painted them. The so-called 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew , was simply a disgraceful 
riot between the Catholics and non-Catholics ; the one 
plotting to secure the crown by the assassination of 
Queen Catherine, the other defending her, resulting in 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


885 


several days fighting. There never was a greater draft 
on the pure imagination of the bigoted historian, than 
is displayed in the average story of the religious fight in 
the city of Paris, August, 1572. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

Henry IV. The first of the Bourbons was Henry IV, 

(Henry of Navarre). On assuming the Crown, Henry be¬ 
gan at once to restore peace, and with the assistance of 
his Minister, Sully, succeeded in giving France a noble 
reign. He was murdered in hie carriage by one liavail - 
lac , 1610. The long reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), 
witnessed the Colonial wars in America ; Wars of the 
Spanish Succession , and Wars of the Grand Alliance. 
In the main, however, the reign of Louis XIV was a suc¬ 
cess, and brought glory to France. 

Louis XV (1715). This was a reign of show and 
glitter, in which the people were oppressed and their 
rights denied them. This reign saw further American 
wars; King George's War (1744-48), and French and 
Indian War (1755-63). These wars lost to France many 
valuable possessions in the new world. In this reign 
were sown the seeds of the “reign of terror;” it was the 
eve of the deluge of blood. 

Louis XVI. The people of Paris, maddened by 
the ravings of Robespierre , Danton and Marat , passed 
all control. The king and his company were massacred 
on September 2, 1792; indeed, in a few days, hundreds 
of the best and noblest of that great city, went to the 
guillotine; and all this in the name of Liberty. All 
Europe arose in arms to avenge these outrages; but, 
strange to say, the mad soldiery of France won on every 
battle field. Within one year, Robespierre sent 1,200 to 
guillotine; among them his former colleague, Danton. 


886 


Cummings’ Uncyclop cedi a. 


But the end soon came; Charlotte Corday (1793) sent 
the dagger to the heart of Marat; Robespierre next; a 
just God would not see the guillotine cheated. He at¬ 
tempted suicide but failed, and on July 28, 1794, the 
blackest villain that ever disgraced a nation, was sent to 
his just reward, and Paris awoke as from a terrible 
dream. 


NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

In 1795, France adopted another constitution which 
vested the governing, or central power, in the “Direc¬ 
tory.” Trouble now began anew. Young Napoleon 
Bonaparte was given charge of the cannon; these he 
pointed down the street up which the mob was march¬ 
ing. The cannon were discharged; the mob dispersed; 
the civil war ended; Napoleon elected First Consul of 
France, 1800. 

He next crossed the Alps and defeated the Aus¬ 
trians on the field of Marengo, June 14, while his 
lieutenant, Moreau, whom he sent to the Rhine, de¬ 
feated the Austrians at Hohenlinden, and by the Treaty 
of Luneville, secured Belgium and the west bank of the 
Rhine; Napoleon returning to Paris in unrivaled 
triumph. At Notre Dame, Nov. 2, 1804, Bonaparte was 
crowned Napoleon I, Emperor of France, and in May 
1805, was crowned King of Italy , with the iron crown 
of the Lombards. In Oct. 1805, he met and defeated 
the Austrians at Ulm. Passing beyond the capital, 
Vienna, to Austerlitz , he administered a crushing defeat 
(Dec. 2, 1805) on the combined Austrian and Russian 
armies. On the result of Austerlitz, Austria surrender¬ 
ed twenty thousand square miles of land and 2,000,000 
subjects. On Oct. 21, in the sea fight of Trafalgar , 
Nelson, of England, defeated the French fleet; this put 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


887 


a stop to his p^ans of invading England. Napoleon’s 
successes in Germa y resulted, 1806. in his forming the 
Confederation of the Rhine , himself as “protector.” 
We next find him seizing Naples (1806), and putting 
his brother Joseph on the tnrone; Upsetting the Bavar¬ 
ian Republic, and organizing it as a kingdom, with his 
brother Louis as king. We next find him invading 
Prussia, and defeating Frederick William III, at Auer- 
stadt and Jena (Oct. 14, 1806), and the Prussians and 
their Russian allies at Eylau , (Feb. 1807), and Fried- 
land (June, 18<>7), and, by the Treaty of Tit sit , wresting 
Saxony , Westphalia and Prussia Poland , from Prussia, 
to which he gave the name, Kingdom of Westphalia, 
with his brother Jerome, as king. 

Driving the Braganzans from Portugal, and the 
Bourbons from the throne of Spain, and having no more 
brothers to make kings, he gave Murat, Naples, and 
transferred Joseph to the throne of Spain. Francis of 
Austria was again in the field, and Napoleon hurried 
from Spain to meet him. He defeated Duke Charles at 
Wagram (July, 5, 1809), and Austria surrendered an¬ 
other large slice of territory. The Peace of Vienna , was 
signed in 1809. The terms of peace weie no doubt 
tempered by the negotiations already und' r way for 
the hand of Maria Louisa, Archduchess of Austria. 

The faithful Josephi e must be set aside; he must 
be divorced; his religion forbade this; he app'ied to the 
Pope for a dispensation and was promptly and firmly 
refused. The divorce is forced; the pr ncess vs edded; 
the beginning of the end had come, and the star of 
Napoleon Bonaparte begins its downward c >urs . He 
next invaded RusTaand left half his army on t e Mow w 
plains. All Europe was arrayed against h.m. In ti.e 
battle of Leipsic (Oct. 18, 1813), he suffered a terrible 


888 


Cummings * Encyclopaedia. 


and crushing defeat. The combined armies of Europe 
now march on Paris; the city surrenders (March 31, 
1814). On April 4, the mighty Napoleon signs his abdi¬ 
cation, and retires to Elba. 

Louis XVIII, is now crown- d King of France. 
Napoleon, escaping from Elba, is soon at the head of 
his faithful army. Louis flies to Ghent; June 18, 1815, 
Waterloo; St. Helena. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, whom we shall honor by 
placing next to our own Washington, in the list of the 
world’s great military geniuses, \va-« born on the island 
of Corsica, 17(59, and died on the lonely St. Helena, 1821. 

On the banishm nt of N.ipoleon. Louis again re¬ 
turned to power. He died in 1824, and was succeeded 
by his brother Charles X. Charles was unpopular; 
another revolution set in which resulted (1830) in 
Charles’ deposition, and a pr visional g wernment elected 
Louis Philippe, of the House of Orleans, king. Louis 
Philippe grew unpopular, and the Revolution of 18Jf8 
ensu* d, resulting in the flight of the king and the reap¬ 
pearance of the Republic, with General Cavaignac, 
“ Dictator.” Young Louis Napoleon, a nephew of 
Bonaparte, now appears on the scene. In 1848. he was 
elected President of the Republic, and in 1852, like his 
great uncle, he had himself declared Napoleon III, 
Emperor of France. The first war in which Napoleon 
III interfered was the Crimean War, where he won 
honors at Sebastopol. He next took up the cause of the 
Sardinians in their Italian wars with the Austrians, whom 
he assisted in defeating at Magenta and Solferino ; his 
share of the victory was the ceding to France of Nice 
and Savoy. 

Franco-Pr? ssian War (1870-71): Battle of Weissen- 
burg (Aug. 14, 1870). The French were defeated by 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopaedia . 


889 


the German Crown Prince. Battle of Worth (Aug. 6). 
Here the French, under Marshal MacMahon, were again 
defeated, and now retreated to their own territory. 
Battle of Sedan (Sept. 1). This was, in reality, a cul¬ 
mination of a series of defeats the French had suffered 
under Marshal Bazaine, ending in the siege of Sedan , 
where Napoleon surrendered with 80,000 men ; Napoleon 
yielding his sword to King William. Siege of Paris 
(Sept. 19). The Germans in three grand divisions 
marched on Paris and laid siege to the city; all attempts 
to break the German line failed. 

Battle of Metz (Oct. 27). As France was making 
arrangements to raise anew army, Marshal Bazaine sur¬ 
rendered Metz with 170,000 men. 

Surrender of Paris (Jan. 27, 1871). The terrible 
blunders of Sedan and Metz could not be retrieved, and 
Paris surrendered. After the capture of Napoleon the 
Government was managed by a council called the “Gov¬ 
ernment of the National Defense.” 

Treaty of Frankfort (May 10, 1871). By the 
terms of this treaty France lost the territories of Alsace 
and Lorraine , and paid to Germany an indemnity of 
5,000,000,000 francs. In 1871, the new' Republic elected 
Louis Adolphus Thiers, President. Thiers resigned 
in 1873, and Marshal MacMahon was elected President. 
The gallant old soldier resigned the Presidency, 1878, 
being succeeded by M. Grevy. Carnot, whose assassi¬ 
nation is fresh in the minds of the people, was succeeded 
by the present President, M. Faure. 

France has show'n her great recuperative pow'ers; 
in a brief space of time she has paid her immense w r ar 
debt, and stands today, one of the foremost nations of 
the world, rich and powerful. 


390 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

ENGLAND. 

We shall be content with calling those people w ho 
inhibited what we now call England, Scotland and Ire¬ 
land, Britons, Piets and Scots. The Piets were also 
called “Caledonians,” while the Romans called Ireland 
“Hibernia.” The ancient Britons were first harassed 
by the Romans, beginning back as far as the conquests 
of Csesar, and coming down to A. D. 450. It was the 
Roman, how< ver, who b ought the Christian religion to 
the western islands. On the crumbling of the Roman 
Empire, the Roman left Britain f rever. But peace 
was not long hers; the fierce northerner now came down 
from the hill-, and the Briton wis plundered far worse 
than ever. At this period the Saxon, Angles and Jutes , 
inhabiting the Baltic and Norih-Rhine country, had 
risen to some power, and the Saxon was invited to as¬ 
sist the Briton to drive back the northern invader. The 
Saxon crossing to Britain, aided in the defeat of the 
Caledonian, and then conquered the Briton, and estab¬ 
lished the “Heptarchy,” the Seven Saxon Kingdoms', 
these w T ere united in 827, by King Egbert of Wessex, 
into one kingdom. 

KING ALFRED. 

Alfred the Great (871-901). This, the first great 
Saxon king, did much to build up the kingdom. Dur¬ 
ing his reign the invasion of the Danes w T as repulsed. 
Alfred w r as followed by Edward the Elder (901-25). El- 
dred was succeeded by his son, Athelstane (925-41), 
who gave his country a successful reign. Athelstane 
was followed by the Six Boy Kings (941-1016). Ed¬ 
mund, Eldred, Edwy, Edward, Edgar and Ethelb* rt. 
During the reign of these boy kings, the Danes made 
many attempts to vanquish the Saxon, which was prac- 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


391 


tically accomplished during Ethelbert’s reign. Canute 
the Dane. Canute finally agreed to take that part north 
of the road leading from Dover to Chester, and to give 
to Edmund, son of Ethelbert, all that lay south. 

DANES AND SAXONS. 

Canute it is charged, caused the death of Edmund, 
and usurped the crown (1016-35). Canute married the 
widow of the late king, and in his closing years atoned 
in a measure for the excesses of his early reign. 

Harold Harefoot (1035-40). Canute had three 
sons, of these Harold finally secured the crown ; Edward 
and Alfred, sons of the former king, and of Canute’s 
wife, were exiled in Normandy. On the assumption of 
the crown by Harold, Alfred invaded England with the 
assistance of Earl Goodwin, but was defeated and cast 
into prison where his eyes were gouged out. Thus 
blinded he was sent an exile to the Isle of Ely. Harold 
now proclaimed himself king of all England. 

Hardicanute (1040-42). This was a good-for- 
nothing drunkard, and died in a drunken spree at the 
end of two years of worthless rule. 

Edward II. (1042-66). Edward succeeded to the 
throne and married the daughter of Earl Goodwin. 
Having lived so long in Normandy, however, he went 
very far toward Normanizing England. Goodwin broke 
with him, and the Wars of Earl Goodwin followed, in 
which Edward was forced to administer a less Norman- 
ish reign. Harold, son of Goodwin, falling accident¬ 
ally into the hands of William of Normandy, was 
compelled to swear allegiance to William as King of 
England. At the death of Edward, however, Harold re¬ 
turned to England and had himself crowned king. 

Harold II. (1066). The Norman King William now 


892 


Cummings' Eiicyclopazdia. 


immediately invaded England. Harold, with an army 
went out to meet him. On the coast at Hastings a bat¬ 
tle took place, October, 1006. Harold was killed, and 
his army routed. William was crowned king, and the 
Norman Conquest was accomplished. 

THE NORMAN KINGS. 

William I. (1066-87). At the fall of Harold, “Wil¬ 
liam the Conqueror,” became king. He immediately 
set about the business of subduing England, which he 
accomplished with a vengeance. William had much 
trouble; first from Herford of Flanders, an Englishman, 
whose estate had been squandered, and who had joined 
the outlaws in harassing and robbing the nobles. Then 
from the Danes, whom he satisfied with bribery, and last 
from his sons, who were Robert, William and Henry. 
William (Rufus the Red), succeeded to the crown. 

William II. (1087-1100). This reign witnessed the 
Wars of the Scots , Wars with the Welsh , and wars to 
hold his crown; first against his brother Henry (Fine 
Scholar), and against the Earl of Northumberland, Lord 
Mowbray, who headed a conspiracy to put Stephen, the 
conquerer’s nephew, on the throne. The king grew rich 
by oppressive taxation. He was shot while riding with 
Sir Walter Tyrrel, in the new forest of the Conqueror. 
He was succeeded by his brother Henry. 

Henry I. (1100-1135). Robert, brother of Henry, 
was in the Holy Land. On his return he was induced to 
make war on Henry for the crown. A truce, however, 
was arranged by which Robert was to have Normandy, a 
life pension, and the pardon of all his followers. Robert 
had scarcely reached Normandy on his return, before 
the base king repudiated every article of the truce. 
Robert’s friends were imprisoned or banished, among 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


393 


them the Earl of Shrewsbury. He invaded Normandy, 
took poor Robert prisoner, on the pretext that he had 
violated the treaty, blinded him and east him in a prison 
to die. The old king at his death bequeathed the crown 
to his daughter Matilda, whom he married to Geoffrey. 
Count of Anjou (Plantagenet). 

Matilda and Stephen (1135-54). Stephen, grand¬ 
son of the Conqueror, and son of the Count of Blois, 
produced papers showing that the late king had pledged 
him the throne. He managed to secure control and im¬ 
mediately seized the crown. The Earl of Gloucester 
and other nobles, championed the cause of Matilda. At 
this time King David of Scotland invaded England 
but was defeated. In the Battle rf Lincoln, Stephen 
was captured, confined at Gloucester, and Matilda 
crowned queen* The Barons of London came to Steph¬ 
en’s aid, Robert, brother of the queen, was made pris¬ 
oner at Winchester. Matilda escaped from Oxford cas¬ 
tle, her brother died, and she repaired to Normandy. 
Next Matilda’s son Henry,a Plantaganet, made war for 
the crown. This resulted in a treaty by which Henry 
was to have the throne on the death of Stephen. 

The Plantagenets. 

Henry II (1155-89). His early reign was a series 
of struggles to get absolute control of the Clergy. His 
most fearless foe, once his loyal friend, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, Thomas a Bechet, was cowardly murdered, 
no doubt at the instance of Henry, by one Reginald 
Fitzurse. This reign saw the wars in which Henry 
interfered to assist MacMurrough, King of Leinster, 
resulting in Richard “Strongbow” becoming King of 
Leinster. Henry’s sons were Henry, Richard, Geoffrey 
and John. He had secretly crowned Henry king while yet 


894 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


in his childhood, and he now demanded the crown. 
Flying to France, followed by his brothers, Richard and 
Geoffrey, he began a series of wars against his father, 
but with little effect. Richard next took up the rebel¬ 
lion and was joined by the last of the sons and favorite 
of the king, John. The rebellious sons, however, never 
succeeded, save in breaking the old king’s heart. He 
was succeeded by Richard. 

Richard III (1189-99). Richard had undertaken a 
pilgrimage to the Holy Land in which all manner of 
misfortunes befell him, landing him finally in prison, in 
Austria. John, in the meantime, had aspired to the 
throne, on the pretext that Richard was dead; Richard 
afterwards returned and soon forgave John. The wars 
with France continued. Richard received a fatal arrow 
wound from a bow in the hands of Bertrand de Gordon , 
from which he finally died. He was succeeded by John. 

John I (1199-1216). John assumed the crown 
which rightfully belonged to Prince Arthur, Geoffrey’s 
son. Philip, of France, espoused the cause of Arthur; 
they were defeated, Arthur cast into prison, from which 
he was taken by John himself, and drowned. Philip 
now denounced John; a war followed which wrested 
Normandy from England. The Barons assuming the 
cause of the people, now forced from John a charter 
which guaranteed more liberal laws, called the Magna 
Charta. He died 1216, and his son Henry was crowned 
king, although Arthur's sister Eleanor was the lawful 
heir to the throne. 

Henry III (1216-1272). A council of Barons chose 
Lord Pembroke as regent. On reaching his majority, 
Henry provoked a quarrel with the Barons at once. He 
shut himself in London Tower, proposing to administer 
the affairs of the kingdom from behind its protecting 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


805 


walls. The powerful Earl Gloucester, quarreling with 
Earl Leicester, now joined forces with the king. At 
the battle of Lewis, the king, his son, Prince Edward, 
and many others were taken prisoners. The prince 
afterward escaped and joined Gloucester. At the 
battle of Herford , Leicester was defeated, and the king 
again returned to power. Henry was succeeded by his 
son Edward. 

Edward I (1272-1307). On the death of his father, 
Edward was with the Crusaders in the East; he returned 
at once. Finding the Welsh in rebellion, under Prince 
Lewellyn, he proceeded against them, and, with no little 
difficulty, restored order. 

War with Scotland. At Alexander’s death, John 
Baloil and Hubert Bruce were each claimants for the 
kingdom of Scotland, and Edward was called in as 
arbitrator. Receiving terms of vassalage very pleasing 
to himself, he decided in favor of Baloil. Not satisfied, 
he took Baloil a prisoner to England, and made the Earl 
of Serry a sort of provisional governor. The unbearable 
insolence of the English, soon occasioned an uprising of 
the Scotch under the leadership of William Wallace and 
Sis William Douglass. At Keldean Bridge , Serry was 
defeated. Edward returning, the Scotch were again 
defeated, and the unfortunate Wallace was taken pris¬ 
oner to London, tried by an English court, found guilty 
of treason, murdered, and his body horribly mutilated. 
Robert Bruce, grandson of the elder Bruce, headed an 
uprising which was for a time successful and Bruce was 
crowned king. Edward was succeeded by his son 
Edward. 

Edward II (1307-1327). As usual war with the 
Barons began, but was diverted for a while by a renewal 
of the war with Bruce. At the battle Bannockburn , 


Cummings ' 1 Encyclopaedia. 


m 

Bruce was entirely victorious and again was made King 
of Scotland. After his failure in Scotland, Edward’s 
troubles multiplied. His queen deserted him, and, 
raising an army in France, invaded England. The 
king fled for safety, but was captured and forced to 
resign in his son Edward’s favor; was afterwards con¬ 
fined in Berkley castle, where he was most cruelly mur¬ 
dered. 

Edward III (1327-1377). Edward first conquered 
Scotland and then laid claim to the French kingdom. 
In this war, which was a part of the famous Hundred 
Years War , Edward won some noted victories, as the 
battle of Crecy, and the surrender of Calais. This reign 
saw the erection of Windsor Castle. Richard, son of the 
Black Prince, and grandson of Edward, succeeded him. 

Richard II (1377-99). Henry’s reign began with 
The Wat Tyler Uprising. Tyler was treacherously 
killed, and his followers dispersed. Next Richard 
deposed the Chancellor, his uncle, whom he later sent to 
prison to die. The Dukes of Norfolk and Ilerford were 
next banished. He then invaded Ireland. While in 
Ireland his cousin, Henry of Herford, by the aid of the 
Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, soon 
wrested the kingdom from him. On his return, he was 
forced to resign the crown to Henry. 

Henry IV (1399-1413). Internal strife; war with 
Glendower, of Wales, and other noblemen; the seizure, 
and long imprisonment of Henry, the boy heir to the 
Scottish Throne, are the chief events of this reign. 

Henry V (1413-1422). He continued The Hundred 
Years Wars; winning Agincourt , and other victories 
over the French. He died suddenly, being succeeded 
by his infant son, Henry, under a regent council, headed 
by the Duke of Bedford. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


897 


Henry VI (1422-1461). The Duke of Bedford 
claiming the Regency of France as against Charles III 
(the Dauphin), another chapter of the long war 
was enacted. The English won at Verneuil , and 
then besieged Orleans. By the valor inspired by Joan 
of Arc, the French broke the siege and defeated the 
English there and at Jargeau. The Maid was basely 
deserted at the battle of Campiegne , taken prisoner, and 
dastardly burned at the stake. The desertion of the 
French king she had served so well, and the inhumanity 
of the English in her execution, were acts so villainous 
that they crLd to heaven for vengeance. It soon came 
in the complete defeat of the English, and the loss of 
the fruits of many victories; They were driven from 
France forever. 

Wars of the Roses. Party of the White Rose , the 
Duke of Y>rk; party of the Red Rose , the Duke of 
Lancaster. The king, entirely in the power of the 
Duke of York, was forced to allow that wily Baron to 
completely rule; and he further agreed to bequeath him 
the kin :dom at his death. I his precipitated many 
bloody battles; now one rose was in full bloom, and 
again its rival. At last the York party won, and the 
younger Duke of York, Prince Edward, was crowned 
king; the elder duke having left his head on bloody 
Walce/ield. 

Edward IV (1461-1488). Queen Margaret and the 
deposed king made some feeble attempts to regain the 
crown, but the Earl of Warwick “the King-maker,” 
defeated them and shut the old king in London Tower. 
Afterwards he broke with young Edward, whom he 
shut in Middleham castle; he now had two kings as 
prisoners Warwick next espoused the cause of Queen 
Margaret’s son, and returned the old king to power. 


898 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


Edward, escaping from prison, gave Warwick battle on 
Barnet Common, Warwick was killed, and Edward was 
again on the throne. The poor young boy, Margaret’s 
son, was imprisoned and afterward stabbed to death in 
the king’s presence, and no doubt at his instance. On 
the death of Edward, his son, Prince of Wales, was 
crowned. 

Edward V (1483-1483). The young king, now 
but thirteen, was shut up in London Tower by his uncle, 
Richard,Duke of Gloucester, ostensibly for his protection, 
but in reality that the old thief might steal the crown 
for himself, which he very soon accomplished. 

Richard III (1483-1485). The coronation of Rich¬ 
ard was scarcely over, when Henry of Cumberland laid 
claim to the crown. The contending armies met on 
Bosworthjield. Here Richard was killed, and Henry of 
Richmond, first of the House of Tudor , became King of 
England. 

The Tudor Kings. 

Henry VII (1485-1509). Henry VII was not much 
of a monarch. His reign was, as usual, disturbed 
by a resumption of the War of the Roses. There was 
little of importance in this reign s*ave the extortions of 
the king and his display of extraordinary money-getting 
powers. He was the common, ordinary sire, of the most 
uncommon and extraordinary villain the world has ever 
known, his son Henry who succeeded him. 

Henry VIII (1509-1547). The particular business 
with which Henry VIII employed himsHf, was 
“marriage and murder.’’ Divorcing himself from Cath¬ 
erine, he soon married Anne Boleyn. Thomas More, his 
great Chancellor, opposed this and lost his head, while 
Cardinal Wolsey, who advised against it, died in dis- 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


399 


grace. Tiring of Anne, he had her beheaded in London 
Tower, and married Jane Seymour, who had the exceed¬ 
ing good fortune to die soon. He next married Anne 
Cleves, whom he styled “the Flanders mare;” her mare- 
ship soon wearied him, and he shook her for Catherine 
Howard. The unfortunate Catherine lost not only the 
affections of her devoted (?) husband, but her charming 
head as well, and Henry married “the last of that bright 
band,” Catherine Parr. He became so loathsome before 
his death that his condition was indescribable. Dickens 
calls him “A disgrace to human nature, a blot of blood 
and grease upon the history of England.” 

Edward VI (1547-1553). Edward, son of Jane 
Seymour, was crowned on the death of Henry. He pos¬ 
sessed all the traits of a first class tyrant, and it was 
fortunate that his ill health saved England from a 
lengthy reign. On approaching the end, he made Lady 
Jane Gray his successor. Princess Mary, daughter of 
Catherine, Henry’s first wife, and Elizabeth, daughter 
of Anne Boleyn, were also aspirants for the crown. 

Mary and Elizabeth. Queen Mary (1523-58) was 
crowned queen on the death of Edward. She reigned 
but five years and on her death was succeeded by Eliza¬ 
beth (1558-1603). Mary Stuart, of Scotland, an unfor¬ 
tunate claimant for the crown, on coming to England, 
had her head struck off by Elizabeth. The death of 
Mary Stuart angered King Philip of Spain who declared 
war on England. Gathering together a formidable fleet 
he stormed England but was completely defeated. The 
appearance of Shakespeare, Bacon and other literary 
lights, and the explorations in the new world, mark im¬ 
portant events of this long reign. Elizabeth, who never 
married, was succeeded by James Stuart of Scotland. 


400 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


THE STUARTS-THE COMMONWEALTH. 

James I (1603-1625), Charles I (1625-1649). There 
is little of importance to relate in the reign of James. 
He was followed by his son Charles. Between Charles 
and “The Long Parliament” grew up a bitter war, which 
resulted in the defeat and deposition of Charles, who was 
afterward put to death. The leader in this movement was 
one Oliver Cromwell. 

The Commonwealth (1649-1660). During this per¬ 
iod, and for three years, the Parliament ruled, until 
Cromwell, who had gained great power, put aside their 
rule and set himself up as Dictator. 

The Cromwells, Oliver and his son Richard, ruled 
for five years (1653-58). The story of this period, when 
the truth is told, is one of murder, destruction and 
robbery; if these things stand for liberty, then Oliver 
Cromwell was the greatest “liberator” of ancient or 
modern times. 

THE STUARTS, 

Charles II (1660-85); James II (1685-1688). On 
the fall of the Commonwealth, the House of the Stuarts 
again came into power. This period saw great develope- 
ment in the new world. Explorations w'ere extended 
and twelve of the thirteen American colonies were per- 
manentlv established. In 1688, James II was driven 
from power by Prince William of Orange. William and 
Mary were crowned King and Queen of England. The 
reign of the Stuarts ceased forever, and that of the 
House of Brunswick commenced. 

THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

The House of Brunswick has ruled England since 
1688, as follows; William and Mary (1688-1702) ; Anne 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


401 


1702-14); George I (1714-27); George II (1727-60); 
George III 1760-1820) ; George IV (1820-30); William 
IV (1830-37) ; Victoria (1837- ). 

Great Britain. In 1707, Scotland was incorporated 
with England under the name of “Great Britain.” In 
1776-83, through her unbearable taxation and insolent 
tyranny, she lost her American colonies, and the match¬ 
less Washington builded from them the great United 
States. 

Great Britain and Ireland. In 1801, the celebrated 
“Union” between Ireland and England, under the 
national name of “Great Britain and Ireland,” was ef¬ 
fected. 

The Crimean War, so celebrated in history, took 
place with England and France on one side, and Russia 
on the other. It began 1854, and lasted for some time. 
It was barren of everything, save slaughter, to either 
the allied forces or to the Russians. 

American Civil War. England made indecent haste 
to acknowledge the belligerency of the Confederacy. 
She fitted out privateers to prey on American commerce; 
chief of these was the Alabama, for whose ravages she 
was made to pay, as you will see by reference to the 
United States History. 

Since 1850, the Rt. Honorable William E. Glad¬ 
stone has been the towering figure in English history; 
there are few things really great in the Victorian reign 
that do not bear the stamp of her “Grand old man.” 

GERMANY. 

Early Period. At Cmsar’s invasion, B. C. 58, the 
territory that now comprises Germany, was inhabited by 
many tribes; the term “German,” is of Celtic origin. 

The German tribes were warlike and soon turned 


402 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


the tables on the Romans. The Germans crowding 
south toward Rome, was one of the occasions of Rome’s 
final overthrow. 

The Empire of Charlemagne. The German tribes 
of the Rhine, and Baltic country, contributed the major 
part to the Empire of Charlemagne, as it w r as first con¬ 
structed, and when the great empire broke up at the 
Treaty of Verdun , 843, it became one of the three great 
independencies, Germany, Italy and France. At this 
period, Germany proper, consisted of three nations, 
Saxons, Bavarians and Swabians. 

THE GERMAN SUCCESSION. 

Conrad I. (911-918); Henry of Saxony (918-36) ; 
Otho I. (936-73); Otho II. (973-83); Otho III. (983- 
1002); Henry II. (1002-24); Conrad II. (1024-39); 
Henry III. (1039-56); Henry IV. (1056-1106); Henry 
VI. (1106-25); Lothar, prince of Saxony (1125-37); 
Conrad III. (1138-38) ; Frederick I. (1152-90) ; here en¬ 
sues a period of struggle ending in the crown passing to 
the House of Hapsburg, in the person of Rudolf I. Part 
of this period w^as covered by the reign of Frederick II. 
(1212-50), and his son Conrad IV. (1250-54) ; they were 
really the last of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Rudolf I. 
(1273-91); Adolf of Nassau (1291-98) ; Albert II., son 
of Rudolf (1298-1308); Henry VII. (1308-13); in this 
reign Bavaria was added to Germany; Frederick III., of 
Austria, and Ludwig IV. of Bavaria (1313-47) ; Charles, 
of Luxunberg (1347-78); Wencelaus (1378-1400); Ru¬ 
pert (1400-10); Sigmund (1410-37); Albert II. (1437- 
39); Frederick IV. (1439-93); Maximillian 1.(1493- 
1515); Charles V. (1515-56); Ferdinand I. (1556-64) ; 
Maxamillian II. (1564-76); Rudolf II. 1576-1612) ; Mat¬ 
thias I. (1612-19) ; Ferdinand II. (1619-37) ; Ferdinand 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 408 

III. (1637-57) ; Leopold I. (1657-1705) ; Joseph I. (1705- 
11); Charles VI. (1711-40); Charles VII. (1740-45); 
Francis I. (1745-65) ; Joseph II. (1765-90) ; Leopold II. 
(1790-92); Francis II. (1792-1805). Here follows the 
Napoleonic wars; wars with Austria, and internal strife. 

Charles V. The reign of Charles V, who 
was one of the greatest of German rulers, was conspicu¬ 
ous for its duplicate crowns. He was at once King of 
Spain by inheritance; Emperor of Germany and ruler of 
Austria, Naples and the Netherlands. 

The Thirty Years War. This was a foolish reli¬ 
gious squabble embroiling all Europe. After sapping 
the politic il vitality of Germany, it was settled by the 
Treaty of Westphalia, 1618. 

War of the Spanish Succession. Louis XIV, of 
France, claimed the Spanish crown for his grandson, 
Philip of Anjou, as against the claim of Charles, son of 
Leopold, of Germany. Peace- was declared, 1714; 
Philip securing the Kingdom of Spain. 

War of the Austrian Succession. This was a war 
w r aged by Frederick of Prussia and his allies, against 
the claims of Marie Theresa, heir of Charles VI, of 
Germany, in 1745. Peace was finally declared, and the 
husband of Marie Theresa, Francis I, became Emperor 
of Germany. 

North German Confederation. Upon the fall of 
Napoleon, who had formed from sixteen states, in 1802, 
The Confederation of the Rhine, that government was 
dissolved, and the new German Confederation, was ef¬ 
fected at Vienna, 1815. In 1849, many of the northern 
states offered the King of Prussia the title of Emperor 
of the Germans, which he accepted. This precipitated 
the Six Weeks War, in w T hich the Prussian Emperor was 
successful. Later on more States were added; Austria 


404 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


was forbidden further interference, and the North Ger¬ 
man Confederation, appeared on the map of Europe. 

Franco-Prussian War. This war, which is treated 
more fully in the French History, resulted in the union 
of the German States. The mighty armies of Germany 
under General Yon Moltke, defeated Napoleon III. at 
Weissenburg, Worth and Sedan. In about one year 
from the firing of the first guns, Paris was in the hands 
of the victorious Germans. 

Treaty of Frankfort. On May 10, 1871, peace 
was arranged by the Treaty of Frankfort. By the 
terms of this treaty France ceded to Germany the prov¬ 
inces or Alsace and Loraine, besides paying an indem¬ 
nity of 6,000,000,000 francs. 

The German Empire. On July 18, 1871, the union 
of the German States was effected. King William was 
declared Emperor of Germany under a Constitutional 
Monarchy. There are twenty-eight states in the new 
confederation; chief of these are the Kingdoms of Prus¬ 
sia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wurtemburg. The smaller 
states are known as: Grand Duchies, Duchies, Princi¬ 
palities, Freetowns and Provinces. 

Emperor William died May 9, 1888, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Frederick; Frederick died June 15, 
1888, and his son William became king. 

The present Emperor is the grandson of Queen Vic¬ 
toria. He is a haughty, ambitious young man. The 
German Empire is one of the first class powers and 
stands in the same class with England, France and Rus¬ 
sia. 


RUSSIA. 

The Empire of Russia made small progress until the 
reign of Czar Michael Romanoff (1613). Czar Alex, 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


405 


son of Romanoff, and father of Peter the Great, ruled 
from 1613 to 1672. 

Peter the Great (1672-1725). This dashing 
young Russian, on receiving the crown at once began a 
reign of conquest. Russia soon had a sea front by way 
of the Baltic. He wrested from Charles XII, of Sweden, 
vast territory to the north-west, and at once founded St. 
Petersburg, to which place he moved the capital from 
ancient Moscow. Peter the Great built up the Empire 
of Russia, and well deserves the title of “father of his 
country.” 

Succeeding Reigns. Catherine 7, wife of Peter the 
Great; Peter 77, grand-son of Peter the Great; Anne , 
sister of Peter II; Elizabeth , daughter of Peter the 
Great; Peter III , nephew of Elizabeth; each in turn, 
gave to Russia unimportant reigns. 

Catherine II (1762-96). Her reign was a vigorous 
one; the Turks were defeated on the Crimea , and Russia 
gained an important frontage on the Black Sea. Cath¬ 
erine, assisted by Frederick of Germany, and Theresa of 
Hungary, robbed Poland of its freedom, and divided 
the country among themselves, 1772; the “lion’s share,” 
going to Russia. This afforded her a foothold in central 
Europe, Pavl, son of Catherine, succeeding to the 
Throne. He was murdered 1801, and w r as followed by 
his son, Alexander I. We then have Nicholas 7, Alex¬ 
ander II, Alexander III , and the present Czar, Nicho¬ 
las, whose magnificent coronation took place in the 
summer of 1896. 

Russia is now an Absolute Monarchy, and stands 
today as one of the first class powers. On August 28, 
1898, Czar Nicholas issued a call for an International 
Peace Congress. The Czar hopes for a world’s treaty by 
which the excessive armament of the nations may be 
educed. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 
SPAIN. 


m 


Spain. “The Battlefield of the World,” has a his¬ 
tory that is exceedingly chivalrous. Four centuries be¬ 
fore Christ, Spain was the camping ground of the Carth¬ 
aginians and the Romans; it served Hannibal in his 
triumphs, and Caesar in his glory, and later fell a prey 
before the victorious Barbarians. 

Spain a Nation. The Kingdom of Navarre was 
founded in 873; that of Castile, in 1026; Aragon, 1035. 
The marriage of Isabella of Aragon, and Ferdinand of 
Castile, had the effect of uniting the different king¬ 
doms. The conquest of Granada, resulting in the final 
and permanent defeat of the Moors, 1491, raised Spain 
to a position of prominence among the European nations 
of that day. 

Ferdinand to Alfonso XII. tV years covering 
this period were troubled ones for Spain; they brought 
her many wars and little prosperity. In discoveries and 
explorations, however, Spain holds first place. To 
Spain the world is indebted, and always will be, for the 
results of the labors of her great sons, Columbus, Bal¬ 
boa, De Soto,Ponce De Leon and Magellan. 

Synopsis of Spanish History. The peninsula com¬ 
posed of Spain and Portugal was called by the Romans, 
“ Hispania” ; and by the Greeks “Iberia.” Hannibal 
conquered Spain B. C. 218; it was reconquered by the 
Romans B. C. 205. In B. C. 71, it was reorganized by 
the Roman army under Pompey. Caesar governed it in 
B. C. 61. Spain continued as a Roman colony until A. 
D. 256, when it was conquered by the barbarians of 
the north. The Goths, whose sway covered a period 
from 256, to 711, established, 415, the West Gothic King¬ 
dom, Spain yielded, in 711, to the Moorish invasion ; 
the conquering Arab now overran the whole peninsula. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 407 

Repeated struggles took place between the Christians 
and the Moors, resulting, in the early part of the 
eleventh century, with a decided victory for the Chris¬ 
tians. The barbarians were entirely vanquished and the 
unification of Christian Spain accomplished, 1491. The 
union of Spain was followed by a period of great con¬ 
quests and extensive discovery, giving to Spain most of 
South America and a large part of North America. Fer¬ 
dinand died in 1516. Charles V (1516-58); Philip II 
(1558-98). The reign of Philip III (1598-1621), saw' 
the final expulsion of the Moors, and the development 
of literature and art. Philip IV (1621-65). The 
reign of this monarch saw the Dutch wars , the French 
wars, and the rebellion of Portugal. Charles II (1665- 
1700). Charles, at his death, bequeathed the crown to 
Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV, of the house of 
Bourbon, France. Philip V (1700-46). The great 
Spanish Empire received its first break in the wars of 
the Spanish Succession , wars of the Austrian Succession , 
wars of the Polish Succession , and the partition of the 
Spanish monarchy. Ferdinand VI (1746-59) ; thir¬ 
teen years of peace. Charles III (1759-92); an un¬ 
successful war with England. Charles IV (1792-1807); 
abdicated in favor of his son; the French revolution; 
the rise of Napoleon. Ferdinand VII (1807-33). 
This reign saw' the invasion of Spain by Napoleon’s 
army, and the temporary occupation of the Spanish 
throne by Joseph Bonaparte (1812-14). Queen Christ¬ 
iana, regent (1833—40). Isabella II (1840—68). Isa¬ 
bella w r as driven from the throne by a rebellion of her 
people and Amadeus, son of Victor Emanuel, crowned 
king (1870-73). This was followed by a provisional 
government, with Castelar as leader (1873—74), The 
people now turned to Alfonso, son of Isabella, and he 


408 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


was crowned king in 1874. Alfonso at once entered 
upon a reign of ability and great strength. He crushed 
the Carlist uprising of 1876, and was giving to Spain a 
rule of great promise, when he died, 1885. 

The present boy king was born May 17, 1886, and 
since that time Spain has been governed by the Queen 
regent. 

The Kingdom of Spain, which at one time had em¬ 
braced the greater part of southern Europe, as well as 
most of the western world, has lost most of her colonies. 
See Spanish-American War in the department of United 
States History. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland being the first of the great western islands 
to adopt and develope law ) learning and Christianity ; 
winning and deserving the name of “Isle of Saints and 
scholars,” is entitled to more from the historian than 
she receives. That she has been robbed of her national¬ 
ity by England, should not deny her a place in history; 
she was great once and maybe great again. 

The sturdy sons of Ireland have entered every walk 

of life; filling positions of responsibility, trust and honor; 

* 

this, too, in every land that God’s sun shines on. Those 
whose nativity or lineage is anchored on that down-trod¬ 
den but beautiful isle, have builded and shall continue 
to build an important chapter not only in our own his¬ 
tory, but in the history of every land. 

EARLY HISTORY. 

Ireland was first peopled from the adjacent main¬ 
land, or it may be, by voyagers, direct from the center, 
where God planted his little family after the deluge. 
Sometime about 2,000 B. C., the Partholians took up 


Cummings' JEncyclopcedia. 


409 


their abode there. These were followed by the Neme- 
dians, Fomorians, Firbolgs and Tuatha de Danains. 

Sometime about 1300 B. C., the Scoto-Milesians, an 
Oriental people, who had settled in Spain, conquered 
the island. The Scoto-Milesians continued to rule 
Ireland from that time. 

The Druids. The Scoto-Milesians, ancient Irish, 
worshiped their gods through a strange and weird 
system of Paganism, known as Druidism, from Dravi, a 
pagan prince. They were a warring people in these 
days, and seemed to bask in bloody contests. The last 
of the Pagan rulers was Dathy. 

Christian Ireland. 

Saint Patrick. St. Patrick was born on the north¬ 
west shore of Britain, (some claim in France), A. D. 
373, and was buried in the city of Down, 493. He was 
brought a captive to Ireland and sold to the natives, 
when 16 years of age. Pope Celostine appointed him 
Archbishop, and vested him with Apostolic authority. 
St. Patrick traveled throughout the length and breadth 
of Ireland, from the pagan court of Tara Hall, to the 
remotest parts, and idolatry vanished like magic before 
the onward march of Christianity. 

From the reign of King Dermond (544), to the Dan¬ 
ish invasion (795), Ireland was ruled by the following 
Kings: Dermond (544-65); Furgus III, and Domhnall I 
(565-66); Eocha XIII (566-68); Ainmire (568-71); 
Boadan (571-72); Hugue II (572-99); Hugue III, and 
Colman Rimidh (599-605); these kings were killed at 
the battle of Lochseimdige ; Hugue IV (605-28); Domh¬ 
nall II (628-42); Cangall (642-54); Bathmac and Der¬ 
mond, children of Hugue III (654-65) ; Seachnusach 
(665-71) ; Kionn-Faola (671-75), killed in the battle of 


410 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Kealtrach; Fionachta (675-95). The Piets invaded 
Ireland at this time; they were defeated at Bathmore. 
Liongseach (695-704), killed at the battle of Cor min ; 
Congall (704-11); Feargall (711-22), killed in a fight 
with Mourough-Mac-Broin, King of Leinster ; Fogartah 
(722-24), killed at the battle of Belgan\ Kionath (724- 
27), killed in battle; Flahertach (727-34); Hugue V 
(734-43) killed in battle of Keannanus; Domhnall III 
(743-63) ; Niall (763-70), resigned the throne to go into a 
monastery; Donchada (770-97). 

THE DANES AND NORMANS. 

Hugh VI (797-819). The barbarians of the north¬ 
west of Europe invaded Ireland (797), and again (812) ; 
they pillaged, murdered and devastated the whole of 
Ireland. Some of her then famous institutions of learn¬ 
ing were destroyed, among them the University of 
Armagh. These invasions, of first the Normans and 
then the Danes, continued throughout the reigns of 
Connor (819-33), and Niall (833-44). In the reign of 
Niall, the Normans met with many defeats. At his 
death, the Norman, Turgesius, usurped the throne. 
Malachi (844-63), and other princes made war on the 
foreigners, and by strategy, succeeded in capturing 
Turgesius, and completely defeating the Normans. 

Next three Norwegian princes came; they built 
Dublin , Waterford and Limerick. The Danes here in¬ 
vaded the island, and their barbarous cousins, the Nor¬ 
wegians, at once engaged them in fierce war. Malachi, 
the Irish king, now assembled the princes and defeated 
the foreigners at Dom-da-Moigc. 

Scots and Picts. In 840, the island was inhabited 
by the Scots and Picts; the latter occupied the northern 
part, and the former the balance of the island. In one 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 411 

single battle the Piets were completely obliterated, and 
ceased to exist. In time the people of the north of the 
Isle of Britain assumed the name of Scots or Scotch. 
The Irish, the original Scots, took the name Hibernians ; 
the term “Irish,” was given by the English, that of 
“Hibernia” by the Romans. 

Hugh VII (863-79). This warrior fought many 
fierce battles with the Danes, and in the main, the Irish 
were the victors. Flan (879-916) ; his was a troubled 
reign; now at war with the Danes, and again at home 
with the wars between the kings of Munster and Lein¬ 
ster. Niall (916-19); was killed at a battle with the 
Danes at Dublin. Donough II (919-44) ; this reign saw 
a continuance of the wars with the Dublin Danes. Con- 
gal, (944-56); in the reign of Congal, the Danes met 
with a defeat at Dublin; later, however, the Irish were 
defeated at the battle of Tiguiran , where Congal was 
killed. Brien Boiroimhe, prince of Munster, defeated 
the Danes in twenty-five battles; chief of these was the 
famous battle of Clontarf. Donmal (956-80) ; Malachi 
II (980-1002) ; this king defeated the Danes at the bat¬ 
tle of Tara , but was dethroned by Brien of Munster. 
Brien Boiroimhe (1002-14). The prince of Leinster 
joined the Danes who were also reinforced by an army 
of 12000 from Denmark. Brien met them on the “Cluon- 
Tarbh,” Clontarf Plain. The Danes w T ere badly beaten 
but Brien was killed. Malachi II, returned to power at 
the death of Brien. It -was at this period that the Danes 
completely conquered England, a thing they failed to ac¬ 
complish in Ireland. 

About this period the people of Ireland assumed 
the surname. Brien ordered that all the Scoto-Milesians 
should take surnames. The custom here commenced by 
taking the name of some illustrious man, and to prefix 


412 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


thereto “0” or “Mac; "O'Neill indicates a descent from 
Niall the great; O'Brien , from Brien Boiroimhe; Mac 
Carty, from Carthach; O’Connor from Connor, etc. The 
“O” in Irish, has the same significance as “de” in 
French. “Mac” signifies son of. 

Donough O’Brien (1022-42) ; Dermoncl (1042-72). 
This prince, and Murchad O’Brien, it is maintained, 
held sway in Ireland for some time; we shall give Der- 
mond the above date. Terdelach O’Brien (1072-89) ; 
Moriertach O’Brien (1089-1120) ; he was the last king 
of that family; his was a long and a glorious reign. 
Domnal Maglochluin (1120-21) ; some contend that this 
prince shared the government with O’Brien. Terdelach 
O’Connor (1121-44); Morietach Maglochluin (1144-66); 
Roderick O’Connor (1166-84). 

INVASION OF HENRY SECOND. 

Dermond Murrough, prince of Leinster, and O’¬ 
Rourke, prince of Brefny, engaged in a fierce war be¬ 
cause of the elopement of the wife of O'Rourke with 
Murrough. Roderick assisted O’Rourke in his wars. 
Dermond solicited and received the aid of King Henry 
of England. The result of this was that Henry made a 
vassalage of most of Ireland; the King of Ulster alone 
holding out. Strongbow , an English Prince, was made 
King of Leinster, and sort of viceroy of Ireland. Roder¬ 
ick now had but the tottering kingdom of Cannaugh, 
and soon abdicated in favor of his son, Conchovar O’Con¬ 
nor. It may be said that the year 1184 saw the last 
of the Irish monarchy. Ireland, for a period now to 
come, was greatly disorganized. The English continued 
their viceroyal claim. Ireland was England’s according 
to England’s contention; but the Irish never lost their 
individuality; they never acknowledged England’s do¬ 
main over them. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


418 


A CHAPTER OF EVENTS. 

Hugh de Lacy, viceroy and King of Meath, was 
beheaded, 1186. An Irish confederation of the Kings 
consisting of Donald O’Brien, of Limerick, Roderick, of 
Ullgah, Donald MacCarty, of Desmond, O’Menahlin, of 
Meath and O’Rourke of Brefny, came to naught. 

Donald O'Brien of Limerick, who for years waged 
a war with Donald MacCarty, of Desmond, died 1194; 
in 1195, MacCarty, in a series of battles, drove the Eng¬ 
lish from Limerick. In the following year he cut the 
English forces to pieces at Imacalle . 

In 1199, John DeCourcy laid waste Tyrone, while 
the Munster English devastated the province of Des¬ 
mond from the Shannon to the sea. 

Hugh O’Neill, the great Irish prince, defeated the 
English at Donoughmore. John, King of England, visi¬ 
ted Ireland in 1212 and did little except to divide some 
loyal districts among his relatives. At this time Maurice 
Fitzgerald was lord-justice. 

The century of English rule which closed with the 
death of Henry III, 1272, did not see their control ex¬ 
tend over a third of Ireland; the Irish were as hostile as 
ever. 


the english-scotch-irish wars. 

Robert Bruce, the heroic Scotch chieftain, de¬ 
feated the English at Bannockburn ; the Irish hailed Ed¬ 
ward Bruce, his brother, ‘“King of Ireland,” 1315. In 
the wars that ensued, the Scotch and Irish were gener¬ 
ally successful. Bruce was king of Ireland for three 
years. The English and Anglo-Irish, under command 
of Roger Mortimer, finally defeated Bruce. Bruce was 
killed in 1318, and his Irish allies received, if possible, 
more cruel treatment than ever. O’Neill of Ulster peti- 


414 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


tioned for redress, but no helpless pleadings ever touched 
the heart of tyrannical England. Their prayers were never 
answered, save in further plunder and extortion. The 
most of the lords-justice who were sent to Ireland were 
as tyrannical as the government that sent them. 

Richard of England in 1394, made a bluster of fur¬ 
ther conquest; returning to England, he sent Roger 
Mortimer, as lord-lieutenant; Mortimer was killed in 
1398. 

The successors of Mortimer: George Gray (1399) ; 
James of Ormond (1405); Gerald of Kildare (1406); 
John Talbot (1414); his rule was disgr teed by an ignoble 
attempt to crush the Irish; James Butler (1420); he 
pillaged without mercy the estate of Morra, killing all 
he met. Edvard Mortimer (1424) ; John Talbot (1425); 
Earl of Osmond (1426); Sir John Gray (1427); Sir 
Thomas Stanlay (1435) ; in the reign of Stanlay, Niall 
O’Donnell waged a fierce war with varying success, but 
was finally defeated and taken prisoner. Lionel Wells 
(1440); James Ormond (1443); John Talbot (1446); 
Richard,Duke of York (1149) ; George. Duke of Clarence 
(1462); John Tiptoft (1467); Richard of York and Duke 
of Bedford (1475), Gerald of Kildare as deputy; in this 
reign the Lambert Simnel Uprising took place. It 
proved a complete failure. Robert Preston (1493); Sir 
Edward Poynings (1491); Henry Dean (1496). The 
old earl of Kildare died 1513, his son succeeded him as 
lord-deputy. Earl Surry (1520) ; Surry, failing to 
subdue the Irish, resigned. Peter Butler and Skeffing- 
ton (1523-30). Thomas Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, now 
revolted, and Skeffington was made deputy. Fitzger¬ 
ald, after many successes, surrendered on promise of par¬ 
don. Instead of a pardon, he was confined in London 
Tower. Lord Gray (1537), continued the depredations 
in Ireland. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 415 

At this period began the Migration of the Irish to 
other lands and other climes; the exodus of the stalwart 
sons of that war-rent land, has continued now for four 
hundred years. St. Ledger, Brabazon, Crofts and Rad- 
cleft, Earl of Sussex, Sidney, Sussex, Sidney, Fitzwil- 
liams, Sidney, William Drury, Sir William Fitzwilliam, 
St. Ledger, Arthur Gray, Sir John Perrot, Fitzwilliam, 
William Russell, Burrough, Norris, Essex, Blount, 
Mountjoy, etc., were England’s Colonial representatives 
in Ireland until 1600. 

During this time the Irish led by Hugh O’Donnell 
and Hugh O’Neill, fought the English at the battles of 
DundocJc, Blackwater , and a hundred other fields. They 
were generally, victorious over the superior numbers of 
the British. The English were constantly re-enforced 
from England, however, while the Irish resources being 
exhausted, they were forced to yield obedience in 1600. 

Notwithstanding all these centuries of war and 
oppression, the dawn of the seventeenth century still 
saw Ireland the asylum of learning for all of Europe. 

Oliver Cromwell, the bloodstained prince of the 
English Anarchists, who had set themselves up in the 
place of the murdered monarch, on the high-sounding 
name of the “Commonwealth, ” soon entered Ireland with 
his robber hordes, and although stoutly and gallantly 
opposed by General Hugh O’Neill, succeeded in his 
expeditions of plunder, destruction and murder. Crom¬ 
well died in 1658, and his government did not long sur¬ 
vive him. Charles II, strange to say, fawned upon the 
Cromwellians on reaching the throne, and at once imbued 
his hands in the innocent blood of Dr. Oliver Plunkett, 
July, 1681. Plunkett was not the first nor yet the last 
as we shall see, who were martyrs to the cause of Ire¬ 
land, made so by decree of the unparalleled tyranny of 


416 


Cummings 1 Encyclopaedia. 


England. King James II, who could neither fight nor 
run with any success, soon gave both England and 
Scotland over into the hands of Prince William of 
Orange. 

It was, after all, Ireland that was the last to yield. 
In a series of battles at Dundock , B*yne, Bally more, 
Athlone , Galway and Sligo , the Irish were forced, by 
superior numbers, to yield at the Siege of Limerick. 
The war was concluded by the Treaty of Limerick. 
After the treaty was concluded, the Irish chieftains, 
Sarsfield , Burke, O' Brien,0' Niell, Fitzgerpld and others, 
were permitted to leave Ireland. Sarsfield went to France, 
and the English felt the power of his military genius on 
many a foreign field. The treaty of Limerick was no 
sooner set, sealed and delivered, than William proceeded 
forthwith to violate its every feature. 

THE RISE AND FALL OF IRELAND. 

First Period. From the treaty of Limerick and 
the meeting of the first resident Parliament, 1692, to the 
period of the American Revolution, which was especially 
marked by the rise of the Irish volunteers, Ireland suf¬ 
fered untold persecution. 

The Catholics of Ireland received in this period 
almost as barbarous treatment as did the early Chris- 
tains, at the hands of Nero. Here are some of the laws 
of the Penal Code: By Tth William III— A Protestant 
was forbidden to instruct a Catholic. By 8th Ann 
—Catholics were forbidden to instruct other Catholics. 
By 7th William III —No Catholic could be sent out of 
Ireland for instruction. By 12th George I —A priest 
marrying a Catholic and Protestant , incurred the pen¬ 
alty of death. By 7th George II —Any barrister or 
attorney who should marry a Catholic , to be disbarred. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


417 


By 2nd Ann— A Priest urns forbidden, under penalty of 
death , to say mass in Ireland. By 8th Ann —A reward 
°f fifty pounds was offered for the detection of a Catholic 
clergyman in the exercise of his religion. These laws, 
defended by the bigot Blackstone, and condoned by 
the hypocrite Macaulay, made the worship of God a 
crime, punishable by death; punished the protection of 
the child by the parent, and rewarded the ruin of the 
parent by the child legalized the confiscation of the prop¬ 
erty of the Catholics, and made them paupers and 
outcasts in their native land. 

The Second Period. The rise of the great Republic 
of the West gave encouragement to down trodden Ire¬ 
land. The Catholics and Protestants laid aside their re¬ 
ligious differences in the common cause. Henry Grattan, 
Henry Flood, Bussy Burgh, and later John Philpot Cur¬ 
ran, James Fitzgerald and others, by encouragement of 
the Irish volunteers, wrung from England many con¬ 
cessions until, in 1783, Ireland was practically an inde¬ 
pendent nation. 

About this time the “National Convention,” an as¬ 
sembly of 300 delegates, elected by the Volunteers , con¬ 
vened at Dublin for the purpose of reforming the Irish 
Parliament. Lord Charlemont was chosen president. 
A bill was arranged and presented to the Parliament, 
and after long and stormy contest was rejected. Had 
the convention a Hugh O’Neill or a Patrick Sarsfield, as 
its president, Ireland’s Nationality would have been 
achieved. Charlemont, knave as he was, adjourned the 
meeting without date; thus the first blow was struck at 
Ireland’s independence. 

THE PATRIOT WAR. 

This Volunteers who had done so much toward 
building up their beloved country, thus betrayed, dis- 


418 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


persed only to begin anew the struggle in arms. Ire¬ 
land was rich in statesmen, orators and lawyers; but 
unfortunately there were few great generals—Lord Ed¬ 
ward Fitzgerald among that few. 

The war soon broke out; the patriots fought with 
matchless gallantry, but the superior numbers, and inex¬ 
haustible resources of the Royal forces, conquered. The 
patriots fought with varying success, and gave the Roy¬ 
al army many a bloody repulse. 

Battles. The principal engagements were: Kil¬ 
dare , Wexford , Arklow , Goery , Vinegar Hill , Ennis- 
corthy , Car-new , Three Hocks , Hoss, Castlebar , etc. 
Cornwallis, still smarting from the thrashing he re¬ 
ceived from Washington, and in a spirit of revenge upon 
a people who had contributed so much toward his igno¬ 
minious defeat in America, sent many an Irish patriot 
to the gibbet, among them John and Henry Sheares and 
Theobald Wolfe Tone. 

The Union. Having put down the rebellion, Eng¬ 
land, through Lords Castlereigh, Cornwallis and Pitt, 
at once entered upon a campaign of bribery, which re¬ 
sulted, despite the efforts of Fitzgerald, Ball, Grattan, 
Egan, Pensonby, and hundreds of others, in the estab¬ 
lishment of the so-called union. The final vote was 
taken on February 5, 1800; 115 voted against, and 158 
for the bill; of the 158 all were beneficiaries of the Eng¬ 
lish government. The Irish maintain that the union 
was begot in fraud; is not legal and therefore they are 
still a nation. 

IRELAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

PART FIRST. 

The Union was ratified by the English home Parli¬ 
ament and went into operation January, 1801. 


419 


Cummings' Uncyclopcedia. 

Robert Emmet. Emmet was a believer in “arms”; 
he went to France on the same mission, and with as no¬ 
ble a purpose, as did Benjamin Franklin in the cause 
of American freedom. Returning to Ireland, the Patri¬ 
ots were about ready to strike for freedom; at this junc¬ 
ture occurred the unfortunate murder, at the hands of 
an unknown assassin, of Lord Kilwarden. Emmet was 
subsequently arrested, tried for high treason, convicted 
without a thread of testimony as to his guilt, and execu¬ 
ted on Sept. 20, 1803. Lord Kilwarden was murdered 
by the hands of an unknown assassin, possibly in the 
heat of passion; Robert Emmet was murdered by a well- 
known assassin, coolly, deliberately, with malice afore¬ 
thought, with intent to crush out patriotism; of the two 
crimes, that of England was the greater. 

Daniel O’Connell. This great leader was born 
1777, and died at Genoa, May 15, 1847. O'Connell’s 
first great achievement was the The Catholic Emancipa- 
BiU , which he had passed in 1829. He next took up 
the work of the repeal of the Union Act. He be¬ 
came the head and front of an association known as 
the Repeal Association. He had associated with him in 
this movement the great Temperance apostle, Father 
Mathew. O’Connell was opposed to all physical force; 
he would redress Ireland’s grievances by “constitutional 
agitation,” only. Mild though he was in his method of 
agitation, he was thrown into prison where his health 
was broken. Discouraged at the prospect for his be¬ 
loved country, and in ill health, he turned toward 
Rome but died before reaching there. 

Landlord and tenant Commission (1834). This com- 
mheion was created to devise ways and means to get 
rid of the Irish people. Among the many clauses of 
this report that bear out^ this assertion, we shall quote 


420 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


but one; “Emigration is considered by the committee to 
be peculiarly applicable, as a remediable measure” ; 
their treatment of the Irish people made emigration a 
positive necessity, and thus their suggestion was put 
into practice. 

The Famine (1845-6). In the years ’45 and ’46, 
the potato crop in Ireland was a complete failure. This 
vegetable being the one chief article of food, a most dis¬ 
astrous famine raged in that unfortunate land for two- 
years, and from one to two hundred thousand people 
starved to death. Let it be told to the everlasting shame 
of England, that in that terrible year of 1845, Ireland 
was compelled to send to England nearly three million 
quarts of grain, and thousands of cattle. The crown 
rents exacted of Ireland in these years, most of which 
was spent to beautify Trafalgar Square, was 60,000 
pounds. In these trying times two gladiators fought 
side by side for their poor, starving people; the one, 
with health ruined in a prison cell, is released only to 
die in a foreign land; the other, daring to breath a love 
of native land, is sent to an English gibbet; who are 
they? Daniel O’Connell and William Smith O’Brien. 

Coercion Laws. All manner of oppressive laws 
were enacted, looking to a complete crushing of the 
Irish spirit. The Treason Felony Act , made any and all 
agitation for the repeal of the Union, a felony, the pun¬ 
ishment being death. 

More Martyrs. O’Brien, Meagher, O’Donahoe 
and MacManus, were soon on the gibbet as a result of 
the new law. John Mitchell, O’Dougherty, editor of 
the Tribune , and Martin, editor of the Felon , were sent 
to long years of exile to Van Dieman’s Land. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


421 


SECOND PART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Some Events. The Honorable William E. Glad¬ 
stone, one of the greatest friends Ireland ever had, who 
was himself a thorough Englishman, took his place in 
the Cabinet in 1852. 

Honorable Gavan Duffy resigned his seat in Parlia¬ 
ment, and went to Australia. 

From the coming of William, Prince of Orange, to the 
present day, there exists in England and Ireland, an 
organization known as Orangemen; this society, whose 
business it is to keep up religious strife, has been re¬ 
sponsible for many of Ireland’s woes for centuries. They 
were the sire of that defunct body of bogus patriots in 
America, known as the A. P. A. 

The Irish in the Civil War. In striking contrast 
to England, there were 200,000 Irish, or Irish-Ameri- 
cans who fought to preserve the Union. General Coch¬ 
rane, at the breaking out of the Civil War, was under 
arrest for refusing to parade his regiment in honor of 
the Prince of Wales; a few months afterward he was in 
the thickest of the fight for the Union, while the Prince 
of Wales w T as plotting for the overthrow' of the Union; 
“not that he loved the Confederacy more, but that he 
loved the whole country, less.” 

The Fenian Uprising (1867). The Irish Revolu¬ 
tionary Brotherhood, or Fenians , encouraged by the 
termination of the w r ar in America, determined to strike 
a blow for Ireland; the attempt was an utter failure. 
“The Irish People,” a newspaper, w r as seized and with 
it O’Donovan Rossa, Thomas Clark Luby, John O’Leary 
and hundreds of others, until every Irish jail, and many 
of those of England were packed. Their trial before 
Judge Keogh and a packed jury, speedily followed. 


422 


Cummings ’ Encyclop&dia . 


Among the prisoners were many Americans, who were 
released through the efforts of Secretary Seward. 

The Manchester Martyrs (Nov. 23, 1867). An 
attempt to rescue Colonel Thomas Kelly and Captain 
Deasey, resulted in the killing of police captain Brett. 
Wil iam Allen, Michael Larkin, Michael O’Brien, Thom¬ 
as Maguire and Edward 0’Meagher Condon were arrest¬ 
ed, rushed through their trial, and convicted. The pros¬ 
ecution itself, proved the innocence of the entire party. 
Maguire was found guilty of participating in the mur¬ 
der, when he was, in reality, at his distant home. Con¬ 
don was an American and the Stars and Stripes saved 
him. Maguire was pardoned, and Allen, Larkin and 
O’Brien were hanged. They died echoing “God save 
Ireland.” 

Gladstone’s Church Bill. The Irish Church Bill, 
which aimed at the discontinuance of the Irish State 
Church, was championed by Gladstone, and opposed by 
Disraeli. The contest went to the people and Gladstone 
won. Disraeli resigned and Gladstone became Premier. 
The bill was then passed through Parliament and became 
a law July 26, 1869. 

Irish Land Bill. On August 1, 1870, “The grand 
old man,” ever laboring in the right, succeeded in pass¬ 
ing the land bill. The bill was intended to arrange the 
differences between the landlord and tenant, but really 
caused more evictions; the unfortunate result of which 
was, that in the next election Gladstone was defeated 
and Disraeli again became Premier. 

Home Rule and the Land League. In 1874, the 
Home Rule movement took root. The Irish contended 
that Ireland should receive the same measure of self 
government as did Canada and other dependencies. The 
movement was so strong that O’Donavan Rossa, yet serv- 


Cummings' UJncyclopcedia. 


423 


ing sentence in exile, was elected on the Home Rule 
platform from the district of Tipperary. The lamented 
John Mitchell, who had served long years in exile was 
elected a member from Mayo. The Parliament refused 
him a seat, and gave it to his opponent who had but a 
few votes. Again he was elected, but died before tak¬ 
ing his seat. John Martin died at the same time (1875). 
Martin was succeeded by Charles Stuart Parnell. 

The Land League was organized June 8, 1879, w T ith 
Parnell as president, Patrick Egan, treasurer, and Mi¬ 
chael Davitt and Thomas Brennan, secretaries. The 
government instituted criminal proceedings against 
John Dillon, Parnell, T. D. Sullivan, Thomas Sexton, 
Patrick Egan and others; the charge was, “Conspiracy 
to empoverish the Landlords;” they were acquitted. 

Coercion. A bill was soon made to fit the case, 
and under it Parnell, Dillon, O’Brien and others found 
themselves in prison; they were released by the influ¬ 
ence of Gladstone. 

Phoenix Park Affair (May 6, 1882). Chief secre¬ 
tary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, successor to Mr. Forster, 
and a liberal and popular gentleman, was murdered, 
together with his companion, T. H. Burk, while walking 
in Phoenix Park, Dublin. There were four assas¬ 
sins ; they were betrayed by one of their own number, a 
Mr. Carey; he was afterward shot, himself. The deed 
was deplored by Irishmen both in Ireland and America. 

The Dublin Exhibition and the unveiling of the 
O’Connell monument took place in 1882; it was a great 
affair awakening an interest on two continents. A mon¬ 
ument to the memory of Theobald Wolfe Tone was dedi¬ 
cated in Dublin, in the summer of 1898. 


424 Cummings' UncyclopcedicL 

AUSTRIA AND ITALY. 

Austro-Hungarian Empire. The history of this 
important country is so largely a part of the history of 
Germany, France and Italy, and has had treatment else¬ 
where, that we need but give it a passing notice here. 
The present Empire is a confederation of Austria, Hun¬ 
gary and other small states. It is an important country 
under a constitutional monarchy, and ranks next to the 
first class powers. The Empress of Austria was assassi¬ 
nated by an anarchist on Sept. 9,1898. She was a good 
queen, beloved by her people. Her assassination shocked 
the civilized world. 

Italy. Poor old Italy has been tossed on the sea of 
European strife for ten centuries. It slept in compara¬ 
tive quiet, from Charlemagne until Napoleon. In the 
Garibaldi wars , the Pope’s temporal power was wrested 
from him, and Italy was said to be “unified.” The 
“unification” of Italy does not seem to have brought her 
much prosperity. She is the weakest of all the European 
countries; she does not possess the strength of the little 
Republic, that nestled beside her in the Alpine hills. 
Riots of the summer of 1898, and King Humbolt’s tyran¬ 
nical measures to oppress his people, speak of the deplor¬ 
able conditions of the country. 

TURKEY AND GREECE. 

Greece. Ancient Greece has been treated at length 
elsewhere in this department, so that we need but say 
that modern Greece, a second-rate power, lives, as it were, 
in the glory of her past. The war she was but recently 
(1897) engaged in, with her pagan and boorish neighbor 
on the north, Turkey, in which she utterly failed, is 
fresh in the minds of the reading world. Greece has a 
constitutional monarchy; King George is her ruler. 


Cummings'* Encyclopaedia. 


425 


Turkey. Turkey is an absolute monarchy; the 
Sultan is the ruler, and the religion is that of Mohammed. 
Her treatment of the Christians in Armenia, the bar¬ 
barity of which has so recently shocked the civilized 
world, is the disgrace of the nineteeth century, and a 
stain upon the honor of European nations. 

Portugal. Though territorially small, this country 
holds no unimportant place among the nations of Europe. 
In government it is a constitutional monarchy. Like 
Holland, it is a colonial country; it has many east and 
exceedingly rich colonial possessions. 

Norway and Sweden. These two countries occupy 
the great peninsula of the north-west of Europe. They 
have been united under one king but have each their 
own legislature. 

Denmark, Holland and Belgium. These small 
countries are of the second-rate powers of Europe. 
They are constitutional monarchies, and each has large 
colonial possessions. 

Switzerland. Like France, Switzerland is a Re¬ 
public. Her nationality began 1499. The story of her 
great hero, William Tell , is known to every American 
boy. 

MEXICO. 

The original Mexicans are known as “Aztecs/’ 
These were wandering tribes who occupied all the coun¬ 
try lying between the United States and the mainland of 
South America. To these people is given the credit of 
making the first settlement in Mexico as early as 1325. 
The Spanish gave the name Mexico, to all that territory 
over which the Aztecs roamed. 

The country became a dependency of Spain follow¬ 
ing the early discoveries. It was governed by a viceroy 
the first of these was Antonio de Mendoza, 1535. 


426 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


The spirit of independence soon manifested itself 
in rebellions. Chief among these patriot leaders were 
two priests, Hidalgo and Morelos. These rebels were 
both executed, but the seed of liberty planted by them, 
produced the independence of Mexico in 1824; O’Don- 
oju was the last Spanish Viceroy. 

Santa Anna was president of Mexico (1835-44); 
Herera (1844-t6). During this reign occurred the war 
with the United States (see U. S. History). Santa Anna 
again became president 1846, serving until 1855, when 
he fled, and a provisional government was launched with 
Comonfort as president. Comonfort was deposed in 
1859. Juarez, president (1859 1872). During this reign 
Mexico was invaded by the French, and Maximilian was 
emperor. Upon the interference of the United States, 
the French withdrew, and Maximilian was executed. 
Tejado (1872-76) ; Porfirio Diaz (1876-80) ; Manuel Gon¬ 
zalez (1880-84); Diaz (1884-98—. 

CANADA. 

This vast country is a semi-dependency of Great 
Britain. France, Holland and England made discover¬ 
ies and explorations of this region, -which includes 
all that country lying between the United States, on the 
south, and the frozen seas, on the north, except Alaska, 
belonging to the United States, and Greenland, a 
possession of Denmark. 

The country was first settled by the French, under 
Champlain and others, and remained a French colony 
until the French and Indian War, 1663, when it was 
ceded to England. 

The first measure of home government was granted 
Canada in 1791. The invasion of Canada by the armies 
of the United States in the war of the Revolution, and 
the war of 1812, was ineffective. 


Cummings' 1 J&ncy clop (edict. 


427 


The confederation known as the “Dominion of Can¬ 
ada” was established 1867. The new constitution 
vested the ruling power in the Governor-general, who is 
appointed by the home government. See Geography. 

U. S. OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Guatemala. The name of this country is taken 
from that of a Spanish captain-general w T ho ruled all the 
Central America countries. Guatemala, the chief of 
these countries, won her independence from Spain in 
1821. 

Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rico, San Salvador 
and Nicaragua are now organized under a confederation 
knowm as the United States of Central America. Each 
of these countries was a viceroyal dependency of Spain, 
and each has w r on its independence. Since they have 
become independent there has been a close relationship 
of government. In 1887 the five republics entered into 
a treaty the chief article of which declared; “to estab¬ 
lish an intimate relationship between them, and, by 
making the continuance of peace certain, to provide for 
their future final fusion into one country.” The purpose 
and aim of the treaty has at last been realized. 

BRAZIL. 

Brazil was discovered in 1499, by Vincent Y. Pin- 
con and Christopher Columbus. Later, Amerigo Ves¬ 
pucci made further discoveries and explorations for 
Prince Emanuel of Portugal. The first settlements 
were made in 1531. Brazil became a disputed posses¬ 
sion of Spain and Portugal; Portugal finally came into 
possession. It was ravaged by the English in 1589-95, 
and later the French founded a settlement on Marajo 
Island, 1612. The Portuguese expelled all rivals in 1625. 


Owarnings' Encyclopaedia. 


428 

The French made an unsuccessful invasion in 1710, and 
the conquest of Montevideo was accomplished in 1817. 
By a series of revolutions in 1821-25, the practical inde¬ 
pendence of Brazil was accomplished. 

Dom Jaco VI, King of Portugal, became the first 
Emperor of Brazil, August 25, 1825, and at once 
renounced in favor of his son, at the same time acknowl¬ 
edging the independence of Brazil. Dom Pedro sailed 
for Portugal, 1831, leaving his son, Dom Pedro II, then 
an infant, in Brazil. A regency followed until the 
majority of Dom Pedro, 1840. 

A stubborn war with Lopez resulted, after six years 
of strife, in the defeat of Lopez, who was executed. 

The Bloodless Revolution occurred in 1889-90. Dom 
Pedro was shipped to Lisbon, and a republic quietly and 
firmly established. Thus far the new government has 
proved a success. 

Other Countries. The other countries of South 
America have all broken away from Spanish allegiance, 
and have ultimately established independent republics 
fashioned after that of the United States. The only 
foreign colony on the continent is the territory on the 
Caribbean Sea, Guiana. This territory is divided into 
three section, colonies respective^ of Holland, France 
and Germany. They are known as Dutch Guiana, 
French Guiana and British Guiana. 

CUBA. ' 

The island of Cuba passed by right of discovery to 
Spain in the closing years of the fifteenth century, and 
has for four hundred years been her richest colonial 
possession. 

The Cubans have made many attempts to sever 
their political relationship to the mother country. A 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


429 


ten-year war followed on the wake of the American 
Civil War, resulting in a few reforms, but was of little 
consequence. In 1894 another rebellion occurred, which 
continued until 1898, finally terminating in the inter¬ 
ference of the United States, whose unselfish sacrifice 
has at last won for Cuba her independence. 

The United States has obligated itself to see an 
independent government established on the island. This 
will be a thankless and an expensive undertaking. 

The annexation of Cuba to the United States is the 
logical sequence of the Spanish-American War. To 
waive the right to annex this beautiful island which has 
been won by the blood of America’s brave sons, an 
island that lies at our door, i3 a piece of conservatism 
that time may prove a great blunder. 


UNITED STATES HISTORY. 


FIRST EPOCH. 

Discoveries —j Explorations — Settlements. 

DISCOVERIES. 

Spanish — English — French — Dutch. 

SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 

Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. 
His success after long years of effort, was made possible 
through the assistance of King Ferdinand and Queen 
Isabella of Spain, who fitted out and manned his ves¬ 
sels for him. In 1492, after a long and perilous voyage, 
he discovered the new world. On subsequent voyages 
he explored the coast of South America. 

Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence, Italy, 
in several voyages (1499-1503), explored and colonized 
the coast of Brazil. 

Vasco Nunez Balboa, (1513) discovered the Pacific 
Ocean. 

Fernando Magellan, (a Portuguese in the employ of 
Spain), first circumnavigated the globe by way of Cape 
Horn, where he found and named the Strait of Magellan, 
1520. 

Ferdinand De Soto explored the southern wilder¬ 
ness and discovered the Mississippi River, in whose wa¬ 
ters he was buried, 1541, 

Ponce DeLeon discovered Florida, 1542. 

480 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 431 

ENGLISH DISCOVERIES. 

John Cabot, a Venetian in the employ of English 
capitalists, discovered Labrador, 1497. 

Sebastian Cabot, a son of John Cabot, discovered 
Newfoundland, 1498. 

Through the agency of Sir Walter Raleigh, ex¬ 
plorations were made along the coast of the Carolinas. 
In 1585, he and Sir Francis Drake made an unsuccess¬ 
ful attempt to colonize Roanoke Island. 

Frobisher made an attempt to mark a north-west 
passage to Asia in which he discovered Baffin’s Bav, 
1576. 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a half brother of Raleigh, 
had made a previous attempt at colonization but 
failed. 

FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 

Jacques Cartier (1534), discovered the Gulf and 
River St. Lawrence, explored the surrounding country, 
where he planted a cross upon which he hung the arms 
of France. 

Samuel De Champlain (1609), discovered Lake 
Champlain. He afterward explored all eastern Canada, 
founded Quebec, and later became Governor of Canada. 

DeMontz received a grant of what is now Nova 
Scotia, where he and Champlain founded Port Royal, 
1605. 

Jesuit Missionaries. Brebuf, Daniel, DeGaenache, 
Rambault, Jogues, Alonez, Joliet, LaSalle, Hennepin and 
Marquette, with scores of other Jesuit and Franciscan 
missionaries, explored the country from the Atlantic to 
the Lakes and to the Gulf of Mexico; established settle¬ 
ments and made great progress in the work of civilizing 
and christianizing the savage natives. 


482 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 


Father DeGaenaohe, founded at Quebec (1635) 
the first educational institution on the continent. 

DUTCH DISCOVERIES. 

Captain Henry Hudson, a British seaman in the 
employ of Holland, entered New York Bay and discov¬ 
ered the Hudson River, 1609. Letters of John Verazzani, 
a Florence navigator in the French service, indicate that 
he had entered these waters as early as 1524. 

NATIONAL CLAIMS. 

Spain had made settlements at Florida and New 
Mexico; she claimed the West Indies, Yucatan, Mexico, 
Florida and the Pacific Coast. France claimed all the 
northern part of the 'United States and all of Canada, 
to which she gave the name of New France. England 
claimed most of the Atlantic coast together with the 
country far inland, naming it Virginia and New Eng¬ 
land. Holland claimed the region from the Delaware 
River to Cape Cod, to which she gave the name New 
Netherland. 

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS. 

VIRGINIA. 

To Captain John Smith is due the credit of effect¬ 
ing the first permanent settlement, at Jamestown, 1607, 
under a charter from England vesting the governing 
power in a local council. In 1609, a second charter is¬ 
sued which placed the authority in a resident Governor 
guided by a local council. This proved a failure, and 
the London Council was abolished, 1612, and the “Stock¬ 
holders” became the legislative body. Smith, who had 
been severely wounded, sailed for home. His departure 
was soon marked by the greatest disorder among the 


C u m m in gs* En cyclop (e cl in. 


488 


colonists and finally the starving time of 1610. The 
timely arrival of Lord Delaware with supplies and fresh 
recruits reclaimed the colony. In 1619, Governor Yard- 
ly called to council the first Colonial Assembly. This 
assembly received in 1621, a written constitution, the 
first of the kind in America. The laws of the Virginia 
Assembly required ratification by Parliament, whose 
laws, in turn, were not binding until confirmed by the 
Colonial Council. In 1624, Virginia became a Royal 
Province, the king appointing the Governor and Coun¬ 
cil, the Colony, the Assembly. 

MASSACHUSETTS—RHODE ISLAND— 
CONNECTICUT. 

Massachusetts. Upon the glowing reports of 
Smith, who had explored the Massachusetts coast and 
named it New England, the Plymouth Company was or¬ 
ganized. This company having received a grant of a 
large territory, upon the arrival of the Pilgrims , 1620, 
established a settlement, and 1628, launched their Ply¬ 
mouth Colony. The Massachusetts Bay Colony , managed 
by John Enaicott and Governor Winthrop, established 
settlements at Boston, Charleston, Rochester and Salem. 
These colonies were joined in 1643. In 1684 they be¬ 
came a Royal Province under Governor Andros. 

Rhode Island. Roger Williams , a Puritan preach¬ 
er, rebelling against the religious intolerance of his peo¬ 
ple, was expelled and ordered sent to England. Wil¬ 
liams, escaping from his captors, went among the In¬ 
dians ; subsequently he and other exiles effected a settle¬ 
ment at Providence, 1635. They received their charter 
from England, 1647. 

Connecticut. The Connecticut valley was settled 
by John Steel and his band of Boston Immigrants, at 


434 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Hartford, 1635. Later John Winthrop established his 
Saybrook Colony . The colonies of Saybrook, New Hav¬ 
en and Connecticut were united under a liberal Royal 
Charter, 1662. 

MAINE—NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Messrs Mason and Georges received a grant of 
what is now Maine and New Hampshire. In 1623 they 
effected a settlement at Portsmouth. Subsequently they 
divided the territory, Mason taking New Hampshire, and 
Georges, Maine. These provinces were scarcely inde¬ 
pendent of Massachusetts until 1741, when New Hamp¬ 
shire became a Royal Province. No complete separa¬ 
tion between Maine and Massachusetts was had until 
Maine became a state, 1820. 

NEW YORK—NEW JERSEY. 

New York. The Dutch West India Company, 
made a settlement on Manhattan Island as early as 
1613. The Dutch Governors held the territory for fifty 
years. Peter Stuyvesant , the last of the Dutch Gover¬ 
nors, reluctantly signed over his New Netherland to the 
English, 1664. The English named the colony New 
York in honor of the Duke of York. 

New Jersey. This territory was first a part of the 
New Netherland , and the Dutch made a settlement at 
Bergen, 1618. Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret 
received from the Duke of York nearly all the Jersey 
territory. In 1664, they established a settlement at 
Elizabeth. The territory becoming divided, was an¬ 
nexed to New York, 1702, but again became a Royal 
Province in 1738. 


435 


Cummings' 1 Pncyclopcedia. 

PENNSYLVANIA—D EL AW ARE. 

William Penn, an English Quaker, secured from 
Charles II a tract west of Delaware, to which he gave 
the name Pennsylvania. The three lower counties on 
the Delaware set up an independent Province and made 
a settlement at Wilmington in 1638. Penn founded 
Philadelphia, 1682, as a refuge for persecuted Quakers. 
In 1683 he made his celebrated treaty with the Indians, 
securing a vast territory which he left to his heirs at 
his death, 1718. The State of Pennsylvania afterward 
purchased the interest of the Penn heirs for half a mil¬ 
lion dollars. 

MARYLAND. 

Like the Pilgrims and Quakers, the Catholics had 
suffered persecution in England, and Lord Baltimore 
(Cecil Calvert) secured a grant of land north of the Po¬ 
tomac, and he and his brother founded St. Marys, 1634. 
The Maryland Assembly in 1634 passed the celebrated 
Toleration Act. This law, the first of its kind in the 
new w T orld, guaranteed perfect religious freedom, irre¬ 
spective of creed. The Protestants, upon securing 
control in the Assembly, immediately annulled the Tol- 
leration Act, as to Catholics. A religious war ensued 
(1691) which ended in the defeat of Baltimore and the 
complete disfranchisment of Catholics. In 1715, the 
fourth Lord Baltimore n covered the control of the gov¬ 
ernment, and with great liberality again restored free¬ 
dom of conscience to all. 

CAROLINA S—GEORGIA. 

Lord Clarendon, and other noblemen, received a 
grant of the Carolina territory from Charles II, in whose 
honor the tertitory was named. The northern settle- 


436 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


ment was made at Albermarle, 1663; the southern set¬ 
tlement at Carteret in 1670. In 1729 they became sepa¬ 
rate Royal Provinces. 

Georgia. James Oglethorp received this territory 
“in trust for the poor,” and established his colony at 
Savannah, 1733. Oglethorp’s commendable effort was 
to found a refuge for the persecuted debtor class of 
England. 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

Slavery Introduced. 

Slavery was introduced (1619) by a captain of a 
Dutch trading vessel. He sold to the colonists twenty 
negroes to be used as slaves. 

Bacon’s Rebellion. 

Bacon was a gallant young man who championed 
the cause of the people who had rebelled throughout 
Virginia, against the continuous extortions of the Eng¬ 
lish government, and the insolent tyranny of Governor 
Berkley. The Governor was driven from Jamestown, 
and the patriots were about to reap the fruits of their 
victory when Bacon died. Berkley again assumed con¬ 
trol and bitterly revenged himself upon the people. 

King Philip’s War. 

Philip was the son of Massasoit, a friendly chief. 
He planned a secret attack on the colonists of Connecti¬ 
cut valley. The settlers were apprised of the danger, 
and arming themselves, finally defeated the Indians. 
Philip was shot by one of his followers. 

Charter Oak. 

The Charter Oak was so named from its being the 
hiding place of the Connecticut Charter, at the invasion 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 487 

of Governor Andros who sought to annex Connecticut 
to Massachusetts. 

Claybourne’s Rebellion. 

Claybourne, a Virginia Councilman, made an unsuc¬ 
cessful attempt to wrest some Maryland territory from 
Lord Blaltimore in 1635. 

SECOND EPOCH. 

INTER-COLONIAL WARS. 

King William'$ — Queen^A tine's—King George's—French 

and Indian. 

King William’s War (1689-97). 

Cause. The war between England and France was 
carried across to the Colonies. 

Battles. 1. The French and Indians attacked the 
Colonists at Schenectady , inflicting great slaughter. 2. 
The English Colonists made a successful attack on Port 
Royal. 3. The Naval attack on Canada failed. 

Result. At the close of the eight years’ war, peace 
was declared, and by the Treaty of Ryswick, each party 
held the territory it had at the beginning. 

Queen Anne’s War (1702-13). 

Cause. England declared war against France and 
Spain and the war extended to their colonies. 

BxVttles. 1. The French and Indians attacked 
New England. 2. The English of Carolina made 
an unsuccessful expedition (1702) against St. Augustine. 
3. The English captured Port Royal. As before, the 
naval attack on Quebec was a disastrous failure. 

Result. By the Treaty of Utrecht , Acadia was 
ceded to England. 


438 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

King George's War (1744-48). 

Cause. As before, the war between England and 
France was the cause of hostilities among their colonies. 

Battles. The chief event of importance was the 
Capture of Louisburg by the English. 

Result. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle , Eng¬ 
land gave back Louisburg. 

French and Indian War (1754-63). 

Cause. Both England and France claimed the ter¬ 
ritory lying west of the Alleghenies, and along the Ohio 
River. 

Battles. 1. The English under Braddock made 
an unsuccessful attack on Fort Duquesne (1755); Brad- 
dock was killed. 2. The second attack (1758) led by 
General Forbes with Washington commanding his Vir¬ 
ginia troops, resulted in the capture of the Fort. 3. The 
English captured Acadia and Louisburg . 4. The En¬ 

glish defeated the French at Lake George , but their at¬ 
tack on Ticonderoga failed. 5. The important event of 
the war was the capture of Quebec (1759). Montcalm 
defended the city with skill and gallantry but was finally 
defeated. General Wolfe, who led the English, was 
killed. 

Result. By the Treaty of Paris (1763), France 
gave up all her territory east of the Mississippi River, 
except two small fishing islands. Spain ceded Florida 
to England. France ceded to Spain all her territory 
west of the Mississippi River together with the city of 
New Orleans. The war cost the Colonists $16,000,000 
of which England paid back but $5,000,000. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 439 

THIRD EPOCH. 

Revolutionary War. 
causes. 

Remote — Direct. 

Remote Causes. 1 . England treated the Colonists 
as an inferior class of people. 2. The Navigation Act 
compelled the American farmer to ship his produce to 
England and buy his manufactured articles in British 
markets; American manufactories were prohibited. 

Direct Causes. 1 . The Colonists contended that 
to be taxed without a representation in Parliament, was 
unjust; “Taxation without representation, is tyranny,” 
they declared. 2. Parliament authorized the issuance 
of Writs of Assistance by authority of which the British 
officers, on the merest pretense, would enter private 
houses to search for smuggled goods. 3. The Stamp 
Act required that stamps, bought of the British Govern¬ 
ment, should be put on all legal documents, newspapers, 
etc. 4. The Mutiny Act compelled the Colonists to feed 
and shelter the officers sent here to enforce these hated 
laws. The Boston Tea Party was a protest against the 
tax on tea; a party disguised themselves as Indians and 
boarded a vessel in Boston harbor and threw the tea 
overboard. 6. The massacre of inoffensive citizens in 
the streets of Boston, by the British soldiers. 

First Continental Congress. 

This historical assembly convened at Philadephia, 
Sept. 15,1774. They endorsed the stand taken by Mass¬ 
achusetts and made a general protest against England’s 
tyrannical laws and insolent soldiery, voting that obedi¬ 
ence was not due to them. Every colony but Georgia 
was represented; as yet they had no hope of independ¬ 


ence. 


440 Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 

Campaign (1775). 

Lexington (April 19). Gage in his attempt to de¬ 
stroy the stores the patriots had gathered at Concord, 
fired upon the minute men, killing seven. The whole 
country flew to arms. Gage retreated, but before he had 
reached Boston he had lost three hundred men. 

Bunker Hill (June 17). The patriots under Generals 
Ward, Warren, and Colonel Prescott inflic ted terrible 
slaughter on the British, who were in command of Howe. 
Their ammunition being exhausted, the Americans were 
forced to retire, although with substantial victory. Gen¬ 
eral Warren was killed. 

Ticonderoga and Crown Point (May 10). These 
forts, with large stores, were captured by Ethan Allen, 
without the loss of a man. 

Attack on Quebec. Generals Montgomery, Sulli¬ 
van and Arnold were unsuccessful in a desperate attack 
on Quebec where Montgomery was killed. 

Second Continental Congress (May 10), met at 
Philadelphia, voted to raise twenty thousand men and 
elected Washington commander. A petition to King 
George was drawn up, which he refused to receive. The 
army numbered about fourteen thousand men, undrilled, 
poorly armed and illy clothed. The refusal of the king 
to receive this final prayer for relief, blasted all hope 
of a reconciliation. 

Campaign (1776). 

Evacuation op Boston (March 17). The previous 
night Washington had fortified Dorchester Heights 
which commanded the city. Howe, seeing the situation, 
knew he must fight or fly, and wisely concluded to evac¬ 
uate. As Howe sailed for New York, Washington took 
possession of the city amid great rejoicing. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


441 


Attack on Fort Moultrie (June 28). The Brit¬ 
ish fleet and land force under Clinton, made an unsuc¬ 
cessful attempt to capture this fort. Their fleet was 
completely shattered, and Clinton was repulsed with 
heavy loss. This victory cheered every patriot heart; 
the “Mistress of the Seas” was repulsed. 

Declaration of Independence (July 4). On mo¬ 
tion of Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin 
Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston and Roger 
Sherman were appointed a committee to draft a declara¬ 
tion of independence. Their report, written by Jeffer¬ 
son, was adopted July 4. 

Battle of Long Island (August 27). While Howe 
with a superior force engaged General Putnam, Clinton, 
taking a circuitous route, attacked him from the rear. 
Putnam lost one thousand men out of the four thousand 
engaged. Fortunately through Howe’s neglect, the 
patriots succeeded in escaping to New Jersey. 

Washington’s Retreat. Howe and his Hessian 
allies defeated Washington at White Plains and at 
Fort Washington . Washington with his miserably clad 
army now retreated toward Philadelphia, followed by 
Cornwallis. 

Battle of Trenton. On Christmas night, Washing¬ 
ton with twenty-four hundred men, crossed the Dela¬ 
ware, fell upon the British and Hessian revelers at 
Trenton, slew Rail, their commander, captured one 
thousand men and valuable stores, returning to Phila¬ 
delphia with the loss of but four men. This brilliant 
achievement gave great stimulus to the patriotic cause. 

Campaign (1777). 

Battle of Princeton (Jan. 3). Washington again 
crossed the Delaware where he was immediately 


442 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


attacked by Cornwallis whom he repulsed. Leaving his 
eampfires burning to deceive Cornwallis, he swept by 
country roads around the enemy, fell upon the British 
at Princeton, took two hundred prisoners and escaped 
to Morristown Heights. 

Battle of Brandywine (Sept. 11). The Americans 
were at Chad’s Ford on the Brandywine, where they 
were attacked by the British. The patriots were under 
command of Sullivan, Wayne, Sterling, LaFayette and 
Pulaski. In the midst of the battle they were attacked 
from the rear by Cornwallis. The Americans were 
routed and Philadelphia was taken. The British went 
into quarters at Philadelphia and Germantown. 

Battle of Germantown (Oct. 4). Washington _ 
attacked the British here and a fierce but indecisive 
battle was fought. The fog hid the confusion of the 
enemy, and the patriots retired when victory was almost 
won. 

Forts on the Delaware. These forts which pre¬ 
vented Howe from bringing supplies to Philadelphia, he 
soon forced to surrender after a gallant defense. 

Campaign at the North. Burgoyne defeated 
Schuyler and captured Forts Crown Point , Ticonderoga 
and Edward. Schuyler was superseded by Gates. 
Schuyler, however, had laid the plans that soon brought 
victory to the patriots. 

Battle of Bennington. Here General John Stark 
completely routed Burgoyne. The British lost about six 
hundred. 

Battles of Saratoga (Sept. 19- Oct. 7). The first 
battle was indecisive. In the second battle the British 
were badly beaten and Burgoyne surrendered with six 
hundred men. The brilliant victories of Bennington 
and Saratoga, more than compensated for the defeats of 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


443 


Brandywine and Germantown. Confidence in the 
patriot cause was fully restored. 

Campaign (1778). 

Valley Forge. The patriots spent a most desperate 
and dreary winter in Valley Forge. A rift in the clouds 
came with the news, that France, through the efforts of 
Franklin, had recognized our independence and that a 
fleet was on the way to our assistance. 

Battle of Monmouth (June 28). Washington 
arrived as the patriots were retreating by order of 
General Charles Lee, and ordered a return. The battle 
lasted till dark. That night Clinton withdrew to New 
York. Washington changed defeat into victory. 

Rhode Island. Here the French and English fleets 
on Narragansett Bay, and Clinton and Sullivan on land, 
had a few unimportant skirmishes. 

Wyoming Massacre (July 20). Taking advantage 
of the absence of the able-bodied men, Butler and his 
Indian allies murderously massacred the defenseless 
women and children of this beautiful valley. It is to 
be hoped that Butler had no part in the outrage. He 
should, however, have restrained his savage allies. 

Campaign (1779). 

Georgia. In the south the British were generally 
successful, capturing Savannah and the whole of 
Georgia. 

Charleston. Prevost threatened to attack Char¬ 
leston, but fearing Lincoln, he gave up the idea and 
returned to Savannah. 

Savannah. In September, Lincoln and the French 
under D’Estang made a gallant attempt to capture Sav¬ 
annah, but failed. The patriots lost a thousand men 


444 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


among them the Polish patriot Count Pulaski, and 
Sergeant Jasper. 

Stony Point. Here the patriots won one of the 
most brilliant achievements of the war. Their gallant 
commander. General Wayne, though severely wounded, 
gave command to be carried at the head of his men. 
The British lost six hundred men and valuable stores. 

Sullivan in the Wyoming. The Wyoming massacre 
was fully avenged by General Sullivan. He defeated 
the Indians and British at Horse Heads , near Elmira, 
N. Y., and, marching through the Wyoming and Mohawk 
valleys, laid the whole country in ruins. 

The Navy. Washington fitted out several fast 
sailing vessels which did great damage to British com¬ 
merce. In three years they had captured about five 
hundred vessels. The most famous of these American 
cruisers was the Bonhomme Richard , under command of 
Paul Jones, which defeated Britain’s pride, the Serapis , 
off the coast of England. 

Campaign (1780). 

Siege of Charleston. Cornwallis and Clinton com¬ 
bined in a land and naval siege of Charleston. Lincoln 
withstood the bombardment for forty days but was fin¬ 
ally forced to surrender. The British now overran the 
entire state. • 

Battle of Camden (August 10). Here Gates became 
demoralized and lied. DeKalb stood firm, holding the 
field with the “Continental Regulars” against over¬ 
whelming numbers. At last he fell, pierced with many 
wounds, and his brave comrades were overwhelmed. The 
British now ruled supreme at the South. 

Patriot Bands. Generals Marion, Sumpter, Pickens 


Cumminys' JEncy clop (edict 


445 


and Lee, each commanding a small band of patriots, did 
much in finally driving the British from the South. 

Continental Money. The continental money be¬ 
came so depreciated in value, that great discontent and 
many desertions followed. Forty dollars in bills were 
worth but one in specie. Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, 
sent three million rations to the soldiers. 

% 

Arnold’s Treason. While in command of W r est 
Point, Arnold arranged to surrender it to Clinton. 
Major Andre, who was sent to confer with Arnold, was 
arrested and hung. Arnold escaped to a British vessel. 
For his treason he received from England a colonel’s 
commision and six thousand three hundred and fifteen 
pounds. Arnold died without a friend, in a lonely gar¬ 
ret in London. 

Campaign (1781). 

Battle of Cowpens (Jan. 17). Tarleton attacked 
Morgan whose militia fled. The British mistook this 
for a retreat, and rushing on in confusion, they received 
the full fire of the regulars. The enemy were routed 
with the loss of many prisoners. 

Gulford’s Court House (March 15). Green here 
repulsed Cornwallis who returned to Washington. Green 
then turned to the south. 

Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8). Green defeated the Brit¬ 
ish at Eutaw Springs and with the aid of Marion, Sump¬ 
ter, Pickens and Lee, soon regained the entire south. 

Campaign at the North. Cornwallis and Arnold 
led a devastating expedition along the Atlantic coast, 
burning, plundering and murdering. They were finally 
checked by the French under La Fayette. 

Siege of Yorktown (Sept. 28-Oct. 19). The French 
army under Rochambeau, the Americans under Wash- 


446 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


ington, attacked Cornwallis, and after a long siege forced 
his surrender. This ended the war. Haughty, tyran¬ 
nical England was humbled and America’s freedom 
■won. 

Treaty of Paris (Sept. 3, 1783). By this treaty 
the independence of the United States was recognized. 
From the Siege of Yorktown until the adoption of the 
Constitution, the country was under a sort of Confederate 
government. 

Constitution Adopted. The new constitution was 
adopted Sept. 17, 1787. The government was organized 
early in the next year. 

FOURTH EPOCH. 

New Constitution—Administrations. 

Washington’s Administration (1789-97). 

Domestic Affairs. 

First Election. The Federalists nominated Wash¬ 
ington for President, and gave him 56 electoral votes. 
The Anti-Federalists nominated Washington and gave 
him 13 electoral votes. For second term the Federalists 
gave him 77 electoral votts; Anti-Federalists ( liepub - 
licans ), 55, not voting, 3. 

Finance. By advice of Alexander Hamilton, Secre¬ 
tary of the Treasury, all obligations of the war were 
paid. Imports and whiskies were taxed to furnish the 
necessary revenue. 

Whiskey Rebellion (1794). This was an u>rising 
against the tax on whiskey. The militia were called 
into service to quell it. 

Indian Wars. Two armies sent against the rebel¬ 
lious Indians of the northwest were defeated. General 
Wayne then took command and defeated them at the 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


447 


Maumee (Aug. 1794) and compelled them to surrender 
25,000 acres of land north of the Ohio. 

Presidential Election. The Federalists , favoring 
the National Bank and English Treaty, nominated John 
Adorns. The Republicans, opposing the bank and treaty, 
nominated Thomas Jefferson. Adams, electoral vote, 70; 
Jefferson, 68. Jefferson became Vice President. 

Foreign Affairs. 

England still held military posts on our frontier and 
continued to impress our seamen. In 1795, a weak and 
unimportant treaty was arranged with England, by 
Chief Justice Jay, which did little but guarantee payment 
of our debts, leaving the question of impressment open. 

Spain and Algiers. In 1795 two treaties were made; 
one secured from Spain the free navigation of the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, and fixed the boundary of Florida. The 
other secured from Algiers the release of our captives 
and the opening of the Mediterranean to American 
commerce. 

France. In her war with England, France had the 
sympathy of the American people. Genet, the French 
Minister to the United States, fitted out privateers to 
prey on British commerce; at Washington’s request he 
was recalled. 

ADAMS’ ADMINISTRATION (1798-1801). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien law em¬ 
powered the President to expel from the country any 
foreigner whose presence he deemed injurious to the gov¬ 
ernment. Under the Sedition law any one libeling the 
President, Congress or the government could be fined or 
imprisoned. These laws became unpopular. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


448 

Presidential Election. The Federalists nominated 
Adams and Pinckney; the Republicans , Jefferson and 
Burr. Adams received 65 electoral votes; Jefferson, 78. 
Jefferson and Burr each having the same number of 
votes, the House of Representatives elected Jefferson 
President, and Burr Vice-President. 

Foreign Affairs. 

France, stung by what they deemed ingratitude, 
became hostile. Our flag was insulted, our vessels cap¬ 
tured, and our envoys denied audience by the French 
Directory. War became imminent; Washington was 
appointed commander. On Napoleon’s becoming First 
Consul of France, all hostilities ceased. 

JEFFERSON’S ADMINISTRATION (1801-9). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Purchase of Louisiana (1803). This vast terri¬ 
tory and the control of the Mississippi River, was pur¬ 
chased from Napoleon for $15,000,000. This territory is 
bounded now as follows: E. by the Mississippi; W. by 
the Pacific; N. by Canada; S. and W. by California, 
Nevada, Utah, most of Colorado, Texas and the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

Aaron Burr. In a duel (July 11, 1804), Burr 
shot Alexander Hamilton. He then went to Mexico 
where he was accused of setting up an opposition gov¬ 
ernment. He was arrested and tried for treason, and 
although acquitted, was ever afterward considered an 
outcast. 

Fulton’s Steamboat. In 1807, Robert Fulton in¬ 
vented the steamboat. Its first successful trip was on 
the Hudson, between New York and Albany, 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


449 


Second Election. At his second election Jefferson 
received 162 electoral votes; Charles C. Pinckney, 14. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomin¬ 
ated James Madison; the Federalists, C. C. Pinckney; 
a wing of the Republicans, George Clinton. Madison 
received 123 electoral votes, Pinckney, 47; Clinton, 6. 

Foreign Affairs. 

War With Tripoli. The Barbara States of north¬ 
ern Africa, of which Tripoli was chief, insisted on levy¬ 
ing tribute for exemption from her pirate cruisers. 

A dispute arose with the United States, resulting 
(1801) in a declaration of war by the Bashaw of Tri¬ 
poli. The American fleet sent by Jefferson soon brought 
the barbarian robber to terms. 

England. Great Britain claimed the right to 
search our ships, and to impress into her service any one 
found of English birth; claiming “Once an Englishman, 
always an Englishman.” As a climax the British frig¬ 
ate Leopold , treacherously fired upon the American frig¬ 
ate Chesapeake , off the Virginia coast. The American 
vessel, wholly surprised, struck her colors. Four of the 
American crew, three of whom were Americans by 
birth, were captured as “deserters.” Jefferson at once 
ordered all British vessels to leave the waters of the 
United States. 

MADISON’S ADMINISTRATION (1809-17). 

Domestic Affairs. 

The Indians, being poisoned against the govern¬ 
ment by emissaries of England, became hostile. Gen¬ 
eral Harrison defeated them Nov. 7, 18ll. Their chief, 
Tecumseh, now joined the British. 

Second Election. The Republicans , the war party, 


450 


Cumrnings' Encyclopaedia. 


renominated Madison; the Federalists, opposed to the 
war, nominated DeWitt Clinton. Madison received 128 
electoral votes; Clinton 89. 


Foreign Affairs. 

SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 

Campaign (1812). 

Cause. England with characteristic duplicity and 
greed, continued to violate her obligations. She per¬ 
sisted in impressing our seamen, and finally fired upon 
the American frigate President. War was declared 
against Great Britain June 19, 1812. 

Detroit (Aug. 16). The British under Brock, and 
Indians under Tecumseh, evidently frightened General 
William Hull who had invaded Canada. Retreating to 
Detroit, the Americans prepared for an attack. As all 
was in readiness, and the prospects bright for a repulse 
.of the enemy, Hull ordered a surrender; thus yielding 
without a struggle, Detroit with its stores and all of 
Michigan. 

Queenstown Heights (Oct. 13). Van Rensselaer 
defeated Brock, who was killed. Van Rensselaer re¬ 
turned for the balance of his command, but they refused 
to be taken out of the United States. Their comrades 
thus abandoned, were forced to surrender. 

Naval Victories. On August 19, off the coast of 
Massachusetts, Captain Isaac Hull of the American 
Constitution, administered a sound thrashing toDacres, 
commanding the Guereiere. The American sloop-of-war 
Wasp, in an engagement with the British brig, Frolic , 
won a complete victory. American privateers captured 
three hundred British vessels in one year. The effect of 

v \ * 

these naval victories was to fire the people with patriot- 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


451 


ism; volunteers were rapidly organized, and Madison’s 
war policy received the popular approval in his re-elec¬ 
tion. 


Campaign (1813). 

The Plan. General Dearborn, commanding the 
Army of the Center, Gen. Hampton, the Army of the 
North, and Gen. Harrison, the Army of the West; all 
were to invade Canada. 

Armies of the Center and North. Dearborn and 
Pike attacked York. General Pike was killed while 
leading a gallant assault by the bursting of the mag¬ 
azine. Demoralization and defeat followed. Winches¬ 
ter succeeded Dearborn and on his way north defeated 
the British at Chrysler's Field. Hampton, being defeat¬ 
ed at St. John's, joined Winchester at Plattsburg. 

Army of the West. The British under Proctor 
captured a detachment at Frenchtown, and then attacked 
Harrison at Fort Meigs, where they were repulsed. At¬ 
tacking Fort Stephenson, they were again defeated by 
one hundred men under Major Croghan. The British 
still held Ohio. 

Battle of the Thames. Harrison and Johnson de¬ 
feated Proctor and Tecumseh; the British surrendered; 
Proctor escaped; Tecumseh was killed, and his followers 
fled in confusion. 

Naval Battles. Commodore Perry (Sept. 10) with 
a fleet crudely made from the forest, defeated the veter¬ 
an navy of England. He immediately dispatched to 
Harrison, “We have met the enemy and they are ours.” 

Captain Lawrence of the Hornet , who had defeated 
the British brig Peacock, was now put in command of 
the Chesapeake. Soon after he engaged with the Shan¬ 
non', Lawrence was mortally wounded; as he was being 


452 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


carried below, he cried, “Don’t give up the ship.” His 
crew were soon defeated. 

Alabama Creeks. These Indians fell upon Fort 
Mimms and massacred the women and children. Gen¬ 
eral Jackson (Old Hickory) defeated them at Honeshoe 
Bend , March 27, 1811. 

Cockbi rn. Thi-s barbarian plundered the Atlantic 
coast, destroying property, robbing churches and mur¬ 
dering the sick in their beds. He spared the New Eng¬ 
land coast, believing they might return to their former 
allegiance to England. 

Campaign (1814). 

Lundy’s Lane and Chippewa. General Scott gained 
a brilliant victory at Chippewa (July 5). Generals 
Brown and Scott, and Colonel Miller, in a bloody battle 
at Lundy’s Lane, opposite Niagara Falls, def ated the 
British. This was the American army’s last and only 
successful invasion of Canada. It was a brilliant, 
although barren victory. 

Lake Champlain (Sept. 11). Here the American 
squadron under Commodore MacDonough, completely 
destroyed the British fleet. Prevost with twelve thous¬ 
and veterans was defeated at Plnttsburg , and on hearing 
of the fate of his fleet, fled leaving his stores and 
wounded. 

Burning of the Capitol (Aug. 24). Cockburn 
continued his plundering to the Chesapeake. General 
Ross invaded Washington and burned the Capitol and 
other buildings; while on his way to join Cockburn he 
■was shot. After an unsuccessful bombardment of Fort 
McHenry , they retired to their ships. 

Peace (Dec. 24). The defeat on Lake Champlain 
brought Eagl tnd to terms. A Treaty of Peace was 
signed at Ghent. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


453 


New Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815). This fierce battle 
where General Jackson, with but a small loss, inflicted a 
crushing defeat on Pakenham and his Wellington veter¬ 
ans, was fought after peace was declared. 

Result. The Treaty of Ghent left the question of 
impressment open, but England has never since attempt¬ 
ed to enforce her claim of “Once an Englishman, always 
an Englishman.” The war debt of $127,000,000 was 
paid from the ordinary revenue in twenty years. The 
result of the w r ar was a notice to the world that a con¬ 
quest of the young giant of the west was an impossibil¬ 
ity. Our navy, “built in a day,” had made its first 
bow to the world; had humbled the “Mistress of the 
Seas.” Our trade, commerce and specie had suffered 
the usual consequences of war, but in a few years our 
matchless resources changed the devastations of war for 
the prosperity of peace. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomina¬ 
ted James Monroe; the Federalists , Rufus King. Mon¬ 
roe received 188 electoral votes; King, 84. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-25). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Missouri Compromise (1820). The Slavery ques 
tion arose upon the admission of Missouri, and Henry 
Clay’s compromise measure was adopted: 1—That Mis¬ 
souri should be admitted as a slave state. 2—That 
slavery should be prohibited west of the Mississippi 
River and north of parallel 36 and 30', north latitude. 

LaFayette’s Visit. This great friend of American 
freedom visited the United States (1821) and received 
a grand reception everywhere. He visited Mt. Vernon, 
and the tomb of Washington, and was carried home on 


454 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

the Bra -dywine, in honor of his first stroke for our in¬ 
dependence. 

Second Election. Monroe came very nearly secur¬ 
ing an unanimous election, receiving 232 electorals ; John 
Q. Adams was the nominee of a few bolting Republi¬ 
cans and Federalists. 

Presidential Election. This was the “scrub race 
for the Presidency.” J. Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, 
W. H. Crawford and Henry Clay were all candidates of 
the Republican party, hereafter known as the Democratic 
party. Jackson received 99 electoral votes; Adams, 84; 
Crawford, 41; Clay, 37. This threw the election into 
the House, which chose Adams. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Florida. By a treaty with Spain (1819), Florida 
was ceded to the United States. 

Monroe Doctrine. In one of his messages Presi¬ 
dent Monroe declared that any attempt upon the part 
of any European nation to gain dominion in America, 
would be considered an unfriendly act. 

J. Q. ADAMS’ ADMINISTRATION (1825-29). 

Domestic Affairs. 

The Erie Canal was opened 1825, and the first 
railroad was completed 1826. Adams’ administration 
marked a period of great prosperity in the United States. 

Presidential Election. The Democrats , opposing 
the National B tnk and the high tariff, nominated An¬ 
drew Jacks >n. The National Republicans (Whigs) 
nominated J. Q. Adams. Jackson received 179 electoral 
votes; Adams, 83. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 455 

JACKSON’S ADMINISTRATION. (1825-37). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Nullification. South Carolina passed (1832) their 
“Nullification Act,” declaring null and void ail tariff 
laws, and threatened to secede if coerced. Jackson, 
however, speedijy suppressed all hostility. 

Clay’s Compromise. This measure provided for a 
gradual reduction of the tariff and was accepted by both 
parties and adopted; it afforded only a temporary relief 
in the then burning question of tariff. 

United States Bank. In 1833, a bill authorizing 
a re-charter of the Bank was vetoed by President Jack- 
son, who ordered all money removed from their vaults. 

Black Hawk War (1832). This chief urged the 
Sacs and Fox Indians not to give up the lands they had 
sold to the government. After some severe fighting 
they were driven off, and Black Hawk was captured. 

Florida War. (1835). The Seminoles, by advice 
of chief Osceola, refused to move to lands beyond the 
Mississippi River, and a fierce war followed. General 
Thompson and Major Dade were massacred. General 
Harrison was sent against them and defeating them at 
Okeechobee , forced their surrender, 1842. 

Second Election. The Democrats re-nominated 
Jackson; the Nullijicationists, John Floyd; Whig, or 
National Republican , Henry Clay. Jackson received 230 
electoral votes; Clay, 49; Floyd the eleven of South Car¬ 
olina. William Wirt, the Anti-Masonic candidate, 7. 

Foreign Affairs. 

France. As yet France had not paid the $5,000,000 
damages to our commerce during Napoleon’s wars. 
President Jackson ordered a reprisal on French ships, 
whereupon the damages were promptly paid. 


456 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


Presidential Election. The Democrats, declaring 
for a reduction of the tariff and against the National 
Bank, nominated Martin Van Buren. The Whigs , fav¬ 
oring a high tariff and the National Bank, nominated 
W. H. Harrison. Hugh L. White and W. P. Mangum 
each were candidates of wings of the Democratic party ; 
Daniel Webster was also a candidate of the Whig 
party; Van Buren received 170 electoral votes; Har¬ 
rison, 124; White 36; Mangum 11; Webster, 14. 

VAN BUREN’S ADMINISTRATION (1837-41). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Panic of 1837. This panic was the result of wild 
and undue speculation and the inevitable contractions of 
loans. The government’s credit was crippled, trade 
was ruined, and great distress followed. 

Presidential Election. The Whigs nominated W. 
H. Harrison; the Democrats , Martin Van Buren; the 
Liberal Abolitionists , James G. Birney. Harrison re¬ 
ceived 234 electoral votes; VanBuren, 60; Birney had 
7,509 popular votes. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Patriot War (1837-39). The Canadian Patriots 
were up in arms against the English government, and 
their sympathizers in the United States raised compa¬ 
nies to assist them. The President sent General Scott 
to the frontier who prevented the co-operation of the 
sympathizers. 

North-east Boundary. A dispute between Maine 
and New Brunswick was settled by the Ashburton 
Treaty , made by Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton 
(1842). The boundary as then agreed upon is still 
maintained. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


457 


HARRISON AND TYLER’S ADMINISTRATION. 

(1841-45). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Death of Harrison. General Harrison died on 
April 4, 1841, and was succeeded by Tyler. 

United States Bank. Harrison’s election was an 
endorsement of the United States Bank. A bill which 
was passed authorizing a re-charter, was vetoed by 
Tyler to the disgust of his party. 

Dorr’s Rebellion. This trouble which occurred in 
Rhode Island, was styled the Suffrage Difficulties. It 
grew out of a constitutional provision requiring a prop¬ 
erty-qualification for voting. A more liberal constitution 
was adopted in 1841 by a mass meeting of the people, 
and T. W. Dorr elected governor. This was declared 
illegal and Dorr was arrested, tried for treason and sen¬ 
tenced to life imprisonment. He was afterward par¬ 
doned. A legal constitution was adopted, 1843. 

Anti-rent Difficulties. The settlers on large 
estates in New York refused to pay their rent. The 
service of the militia was required to force payment. 

Mormon Troubles. These advocates of “plural 
wives,” settled at Nauvoo, Ill. The people arose against 
them, killed their leader, Joseph Smith, and drove them 
from the state. They settled in Iowa, 1846. They 
finally settled in Utah, built the city of Salt Lake where 
they still “hold forth.” 

The Telegraph. The first test of the Magnetic 
Telegraph, the invention of Samuel F. B. Morse, was 
had between Baltimore and Washington, 1844. Con¬ 
gress appropriated $30,000 towards its development, 

and the first public news transmitted was that of Polk’s 

% 

nomination. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


458 

V ' f 

Presidential Election. The Democrats , endorsing 
the admi-sion of Texas, nominated Janies K. Polk; the 
Whigs , opposing its admission, nominated Henry Clay; 
the Liberty party, nominated James G. Birney. Polk 
received 170 electoral votes; Clay, 105; Birney a popu¬ 
lar vote of 62, 300. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Texas. In April, 1844, Texas, which had won her 
independence from Mexico through the generalship of 
Sam Houston, applied for admission to the United States. 
Congress first rejected their petition. Annexation 
being endorsed in the election of Polk, it was admitted 
in 1845. 

North-west Boundary. During Polk’s Administra¬ 
tion the dispute between the United States and Canada 
as to the boundary line, was compromised at 49°, instead 
of 54° and 40 / , as claimed by the United States. 

POLK’S ADMINISTRATION (1845-49). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Willmot’s Proviso. In Aug. 1846, David Willmot 
offered in Congress a resolution prohibiting slavery in 
any territory that might thereafter be acquired. Though 
defeated, it became an issue in the election of that fall. 

Gold in California. In 1848 gold was discovered in 
the Sacramento valley, California. The find was so 
rich that the eyes of the financial world centered on 
California and beautiful cities grew up like magic. 

Foreign Affairs. 

War With Mexico (1846-47). 

Cause. A dispute as to the boundary line between 
Texas and Mexico. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


459 


Battle of Palo Alto. General Scott defeated 
Santa Anna here, and again the next day at liesaca De La 
Palma. The Mexicans were driven across the Rio Grande. 

Taylor in Mexico. Crossing iuto Mexico Taylor 
captured Monterey. Sept. 24. At Buena Vista (Feb. 
23, 1847), Genera] Santa Anna attacked Taylor and 
Biagg. The fight lasted all day ending at nightfall 
with the withdrawal of the Mexicans. 

Kearney and Fremont. These two dashing generals 
soon had New Mexico, California, and the whole region 
to the Pacific Ocean and to the Gulf of California, com¬ 
pletely conquered. 

Scott’s March to Mexico. The city of Vera Cruz 
surrendered March 29, after a four-days’ bombardment. 
The Pass of Ctrro Gordo (April 18) ; the city of Pueblo 
(April 20) ; the Mexican entrenchments at Conteras 
(A ug. 19); the fortified heights of Cherubusco (Aug. 19), 
and finally (Sept. 8) the beautiful city of Mexico , the 
capital, fell before the triumphant northern soldiers. 

Peace (Feb 2, 1848). By treaty Mexico ceded all 
that territory conquered by Kearney, which is what we 
now know as California, Nevada, Utah, part of Wyom¬ 
ing, the southern half of Colorado , the south-west corner 
of Kansas, New Mexico and Arizona to the Gila River. 

Presidential Election. The Whigs nominated 
Zachary TaySor; the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass; 
Free Soil , Martin VanBuren; Liberty League, Gerritt 
Smith. Taylor received 163 electoral votes; Cass, 127. 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE’S ADMINISTRATION. 

(1849-53). 

Domestic Affairs. 

The Omnibus Bill. In January 29, 1850, this bill 
was introduced by Henry Clay, chairman of the com- 


400 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


mittee; iii July it was rejected, but in the fall a series 
of separate bills, covering substantially the same, 
became laws. The Omnibus Bill provided: (1) that 
California should be admitted as a free state; (2) that 
Utah and New Mexico should be organized into Terri¬ 
tories without any provision regarding slavery; (3) that 
$10,000,000 should be paid to Texas for her claim on New 
Mexico; (4) that the slave trade should be prohibited 
in the District of Columbia; (5) that a fugitive slave 
law should be enacted providing for the return of 
escaped slaves to their owners. 

Death of Taylor. General Taylor died July 9, 
1850, and was succeeded by Fillmore. 

Presidential Election. The Democrats and Whigs 
both endorsed the Omnibus Bill, the Free Democracy , 
opposed it. The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce ; 
the Whigs, Winfield Scott; the Free Democracy, John 
P. Hall. Pierce received 255 electoral votes; Scott, 
42; Hall received a popular vote of 156,149. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Cuba (1851). The “filibusters,” under Lopez, 
invaded Cuba for the purpose of annexing it to the 
United States. The enterprise failed and Lopez was 

executed at Havana. 

% 

PIERCE’S ADMINISTRATION (1853-57). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill. This bill which became a law 
1854, was championed by Stephen A. Douglass. It pro 
vided that the people of these States should decide for 
themselves whe her their states should be free or slave. 

Bleeding Kansas. Upon the admission of Kansas 
the attempt to settle the slavery question resulted in a 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 461 

bloody strife within and along the border between the 
slavery and anti-slavery parties. The trouble was 
intensified by the invasion of armed bands from Missouri. 

Presidential Election. The Democrats nominated 
James Buchanan; the Whig , which is hereafter known 
as the Republican party, nominated John C. Fremont; the 
Knownot.hings nominated Millard Fillmore. Buchanan 
received 174 electoral votes; Fremont, 114; Fillmore, 8. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Gadsden Purchase (1853). General Gadsden 
negotiated a treaty which settled the boundary dispute 
with Mexico. Mexico was paid $10,000,000, and the 
United States acquired the territory from the Gila 
River south to the present boundary. 

Japan (1854). Commodore Perry negotiated a 
treaty with Japan which opened her ports to American 
commerce. 

BUCHANAN’S ADMINISTRATION (1854-61). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Dred Scott Decision. One Scott and his wife who 
were taken into the north, claimed their freedom. A 
test case was made of it which the United States Supreme 
Court, through Chief Justice Taney, decided against 
the slave. They found that a slave-holder might take 
his slaves into a free state without forfeiting the right 
of ownership. 

The Fugitive Slave Law. This law which was 
passed as a part of the Omnibus Bill, was vigorously 
opposed at the North and many states passed “Personal 
liberty bills,” guaranteeing to slaves the right of trial 
by jury. 

John Brown. In 1859, this visionary fellow, think- 


462 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


ing he could free the slaves, seized the United States 
Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Va. He was arrested and 
hung for treason. 

Precedential Election. The Republicans (formerly 
Whigs) nominated Abraham Lincoln; the Democrats , 
J. C. Breckenridge; Independent Democrats, Stephen 
A. Douglass; Constitutional Union , John Bell. Lincoln 
received 180 electoral votes; Breckenridge, 84; Doug¬ 
lass, 12; Bell, 39. 

The South Secedes. South Carolina, angered at 
the election of Lincoln, and holding to the doctrine of 
“states rights,” withdrew from the Union, Dec. 1860. 
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and 
Texas soon followed South Carolina. 

Confederate States of America. In February 
1861, delegates from the seceding states met at Mont¬ 
gomery, Alabama, and organized their “Confederate 
States of America.” Jefferson Davis was elected Presi¬ 
dent, and Alexander H. Stephens, Vice President. Their 
seat of government was established at Richmond, 
Virginia. 

FIFTH EPOCH. 

CIVIL WAR. 

Lincoln’s Administration (1861-65). 

Campaign (1861). 

Lincoln’s Inauguration. Owing to rumors of a 
plan to assassinate Lincoln, he went to Washington in 
disguise, and was inaugurated, surrounded by the troops 
under General Scott. 

Fort Sumpter. Major Anderson after a long and 
gallant defense under a severe bombardment from 
Beauregard, surrendered April 14. This caused general 
"alarm at the North. 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


403 


Volunteers. Lincoln’s call for 75,000 volunteers 
was speedily answered by 300 000. 

First Blood. The Sixth Massachusetts Regiment 
on their way to the defense of the capital, was attacked 
in the streets of Baltimore and seven men were killed. 

Arlington Heights and Alexandria (May 24). 
Fort Arlington , opposite Washington, and Alexandria , a 
few miles below, were captured by the Union troops. 
Colonel Elmer E. Elsworth, as he was removing a Con¬ 
federate flag at the hotel in Alexandria, was shot by 
Johnson, proprietor of the hotel; Johnson fell by the 
hand of private Brownell. 

Fortress Monroe. This formidable fortification 
situated at the mouth of the Chesapeake, was garrisoned 
by Gen. Butler. An expedition against Big Bethel 
failed. 

Western Virginia. This portion of Virginia re¬ 
maining loyal, was organized into a new state. The 
Confederates still held the state and McClellan was sent 
against them. He was successful at Philippi , Rich 
Mountains and Garrick's Ford . General Rosecrans de¬ 
feated Floyd at Carnifex Ferry and drove him out of 
West Virginia. 

First Bull Run (July 21). McDowell first repulsed 
Beauregard but his troops were rallied by T. J. Jackson. 
In the heat of the battle McDowell was attacked from 
the rear by General Kirby Smith and J. Early ; his army 
w T as cut to pieces. The North now saw the real situation; 
Congress voted $500,000,000 and 500,000 men. General 
McClellan was made commander. 

Ball’s Bluff (Oct. 21). This position just across 
the Potomac, was attacked by the Federalists under Col. 
Baker with 2,000 men. The attempt was a disastrous 
failure and Baker was killed. 


464 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


Dranesville (Dec. 20). General Edward O. C. 
Ord defeated the Confederates here and in a measure 
attoned for the defeat of Ball’s Bluif; it greatly encour¬ 
aged the North. 

Missouri. This state declining to secede, became a 
great battle ground. The generalship of Lyon, Sigel, 
Fremont, Hunter and Halleck was here pitted against 
that of Price, Marmaduke and McCullough. Lyon de¬ 
feated Marmaduke at Boonsville , Sigel was defeated at 
Carthage. At Wilson's Creek, Aug. 10, Lyon engaged 
McCullough and Price in a fierce battle ; Lyon was killed 
and his men were- defeated. Colonel Mulligan was 
forced to surrender Lexington. Fremont, who now as¬ 
sumed command, drove Price to Springfield, when he was 
superseded by Hunter who took the army back to St. 
Louis. Hunter was replaced by Halleck who drove 
Price out of the state. 

The Trent Affair. Mason and Slidell , Confed¬ 
erate Commissioners to England and France (these 
countries had acknowledged the Confederates as bellig¬ 
erents), were captured by Captain Wilkes of the San 
Jacinto , as they were on board the British steamer 
Trent. England and France protested and the men 
were released. 

War on the Coast. The Forts at Hatteras Inlet , 
N. C., and Port Royal Entrance , S. C., were captured 
by the fleet under Dupont and the army under Thomas 
W. Sherman. Port Royal was made a central naval de¬ 
pot for the Union fleet. The loss of these forts was a 
severe blow to the confederacy. 

Campaign (1862). 

The Situation. The Union army numbered 500,- 
000 men, the Confederate 350,000. The plan of the 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


466 


North was; (I) the opening of the Mississippi River; 
(2) the blockading of the Southern ports; (3) the cap¬ 
ture of Richmond. 

Forts Henry and Donelson. (Feb. 6-16). Fort 
Henry, situated on the Tennessee River, and Fort Donel¬ 
son, on the Cumberland River, yielded to the combined 
attack of the fleet under Dupont and the army under 
Grant. General Grant in response to General S. B. 
Buckner, of Fort Donelson, as to the terms, declared 
“Unconditional Surrender.” 

Battle of Shiloh. (April 6-7). Beauregard and 
A. S. Johnson fiercely attacked Grant whom they forced 
to the bank of the Tennessee River. Here, massing his 
force in one grand rally he inflicted terrible slaughter 
on the Confederates. At this point Buell came upon the 
field and the battle was won. Grant, however, lost his 
camp stores, and a thousand men as prisoners. ' The 
next day with Buell’s assistance, Beauregard was driven 
from the field, toward Corinth. 

Island No. 10. This island, situated in the Ohio 
River, was held by the Confederates. Gen. Pope, who 
had captured the batteries on the opposite bank, was 
preparing to attack it when its garrison, seven thousand 
strong, surrendered April 7. 

Perryville (Oct. 8 ). Bragg and Buell now began 
a race for Louisville. Buell arriving first, Bragg fell 
back and was followed by Buell. At Perryville Bragg 
turned on Buell and a fierce battle was fought. That 
night Bragg withdrew. Buell was succeeded by Rose- 
era ns. 

Iuka and Corinth (Sept. 19-Oct. 4). Rosecrans 
drove Price from Iuka. Price then joined VanDorn and 
together they attacked Rosecrans at Corinth. The 
Confederate army suffered defeat with a heavy loss, 


466 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


The Confederates fought with desperate courage hut 
could not stem the tide. 

Murfreesboro (Dec. 31-June 2). Here was fought 
one of the fiercest battles of the war; the loss equalled 
nearly a fourth of those engaged. Bragg was on his 
second expedition north and as he reached Murfreesboro 
was attacked by Rosecrans. The Union right w’hile 
crossing Stone River, was fiercely attacked by the Con¬ 
federate left; the gallantry of Gen. Sheridan saved the 
day. Bragg now gave up all hope of capturing Ken¬ 
tucky. Bragg’s course was changed from the offensive 
to the defensive. The Union cry “On to Chattanooga - ’ 
was taken up. 

Vicksburg. As Grant and Sherman w T ere moving on 
Vicksburg, Grant’s supplies at Holly Springs were de¬ 
stroyed by VanDorn. Sherman, ignorant of Grant’s 
misfortune, moved on Chicasaw Bayou where he suffered 
defeat. The capture of Arkansas Post closed this year’s 
campaign on the Mississippi River. 

Missouri. General Curtis drove Price out of Mis¬ 
souri. Van Dorn now took command and at the head of 
20,000 men attacked Curtis at Pea Ridge. After two 
days of fierce fighting (March 7-8) VanDorn was to¬ 
tally defeated. This ended the war in Missouri. 

Capture of New Orleans (April 25). This was 
accomplished by the fleet under Farragut and the army 
under Butler, after many days of bombardment. The 
fleet then steamed up the river and captured Baton 
Rouge and Natchez. After running the gauntlet at 
Vicksburg, Farragut joined the fleet above. 

Confederate Coast Defenses. New Bern , Eliza¬ 
beth City, Fort Macon , Fort Clinch, Jacksonville , Dar¬ 
ien, Augusta, smdPulaski fell into theUnion hands. There 
now remained to the Confederacy only Charleston, Sa¬ 
vannah and Wilmington. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


467 


Merrimac and Monitor (March 9). On the eighth 
of March the Union sloop of-war, Cumberland, was sunk 
by the Merrimac in Hampton Roads. The next day the 
little Monitor fought the Merrimac to a standstill. The 
Confederate fleet now steamed back to Norfolk. The 
effect of this repu’se of the Merrimac practically turned 
the tide of the war; it saved the Union fleet in Hamp¬ 
ton Roads and made the Peninsular campaign possible. 

Campaign on the Peninsula. McClellan besieged 
Yorktown April 4, the Confederates under Magruder, 
skillfully retreated, pursued by McClellan. 

Williamsburg (May 5). Here “fighting Joe Hooker” 
routed the Conft derates and pursued them toward Rich¬ 
mond. 

General Jackson invaded the Shenandoah and 
threatened Washington. Fremont, Banks, McDowell 
and Shields were sent to capture him. Jackson then re¬ 
treated with a skirmish at Cross Keys with Fremont, 
and at Port Royal with Shit Ids (Jan. 8-9), hurling 
them both back. He made good his escape from the 
Shenandoah, burning the bridges behind him. He 
prevented McDowell’s junction with McClellan, threat¬ 
ened Washington, thereby saving Richmond. 

Fair Oaks (May 31- June 1). McClellan and 
Sumner in a pitched battle here defeated the Confeder¬ 
ates; Johnson was severely wounded. The next day 
the attack was renewed, but the Confederates were re¬ 
pulsed with great loss. 

The Seven Days Fight (June 26- July 1). Gen¬ 
eral Stuart’s celebrated raid in which he made a com¬ 
plete ciicuit of the Union army and burned the railroad 
leading to White House , and Jackson's threatened 
attack on the same, decided McClellan to give up his at¬ 
tack on Richmond and to change his base of supplies 


468 


Cummings' Encyclopedia 


from the York River to the James. Now began ‘‘the 
bloody retreat.” At Mechanic»ville Lee and McClellan 
fought a f erce and indecisive battle. Porter, by des¬ 
perate fighting, held Chickihominy Bridge until night, 
then burning it, retreated. June 29, McClellan repulsed 
Magruder’s attack at Savage Station , continuing the 
retreat. At Frazer's Farm (June 30), Longstreet at¬ 
tacked the line of retreat but failed to break it. And 
finally (July 1), at Malvern Hill , McClellan gave Lee 
a bloody check and retreatt d with his army to Harrison's 
Landing. ‘-The Seven days battle” cost Lee 20,000 
Den and McClellan 16,000. The retreat was skillfully 
and heroically accomplished, yet it raised the siege of 
Richmond, cost the Union immense stores, and cast 
a gloom over the entire North. 

Cedar Mountain, Harper s Ferry and Chantilly. 
Jackson defeated Banks at Cedar Mountain, and Miles 
at Harper’s Ferry. A terrible battle with Lee at Chan¬ 
tilly, cost the Union two gallant generals, Shields and 
Stephens. 

Lee Invades Maryland. McClellan was sent to meet 
Lee, and forcing the passes at South Mountain encamped 
his army in the valley beyond. 

Antietam (Sept. 17). Here Lee and Jackson, pit¬ 
ted against McClellan and Ho >ker, fought throughout 
the long day until darkness ended the struggle. Lee 
withdrew across the Potomac. 

The Emancipation Proclamation. This celebrated 
Proclamation was now issued. Lincoln had said * “I 
solemnly vow before God, that if Lee is driven back 
from Maryland, I will crown the result by a didaration 
of freedom to the slaves.” 

Fredericksburg (Dec. 13). Burnside, who super- 
ceded McC ellan, was badly beaten here and diven back 
across the Rappahannock with a loss of 12,000 men. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia, 


469 


The Sioux Indians. Little Crow and other chiefs 
of the far north-we t, had perpetrated many cruel massa¬ 
cres on the people of the Dakota region. Colonel Sibley 
routed them, took many prisoners and hung some of 
their leaders. 

Campaign (1863). 

Vicksburg. Grant in his march on Vicksburg, de¬ 
feated Pe mberton at Port Gibson (May 1) ; Johnson at 
Jackson (May 11) ; Pemberton at Champion Hill (May 
16) ; Big Black Hirer (May 17), and finally shutting him 
up in Vicksburg. Then followed the forty days seige 
which forced the surrender of Pemberton with 37,000 
men and great stores. Port Hudson being captured by 
Banks, the Mississippi River was now ope n to the Gulf. 

Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20). These two fierce 
battles were fought September 19 and 20. The first was 
indeisive; in the second the Confederates under Long- 
street swept the Union army from the field. Thomas, 
however, covered the retreat to Chattanooga with great 
skill, actually picking up prisoners on the way. 

Chattanooga (Nov. 24-25). The armies of Grant, 
Sherman and Hooker now joined Rosecrans and Thomas. 
The first day Thomas captured Orchard Knob , and 
Hooker, the forts on Lookout Mountain. On the 25th 
the combined Union armies, in one grand charge gained 
the crest of the hill, swept over the top, and a mighty 
victory was won. 

Chancellorsville (May 2-3). Here in a two-days 
struggle, Lee and Jackson defeated Hooker and Sedg¬ 
wick, and forced them across the Potomac. Lee again 
invaded the north hoping to capture Washington. 

Gettysburg. On July 1, there were some sharp 
skirmishes on the Chambersburg Hoad . On the second 


470 


Cummings 9 Encyclopaedia. 


day Longstreet made an attempt to gain Little Bound 
Top bat failed. He, however, occupied Culp's Hill. 
The third day Lee opened fire on Cemetery Bulge. Then 
began the greatest battle of modern times. Meade, 
Hancock, Reynolds, Ricketts and Keenan here defeated 
the picked army of the south. The heroic but disap¬ 
pointed Lee retired across the Potomac. The backbone 
of the war was broken ; the dream of northern conquest 
dispelled; Lee’s magnificent soldiery that went down in 
those awful charges could never be replaced. 

Charleston. Dupont’s attempt to capture Charles¬ 
ton ended in a disastrDus failure. 

Forts Wag>ier and Sumpter were reduced to ruins 
by Gen. Gilmore. 

Campaign (1864). 

Sherman at Atlanta. Sherman first advanced upon 
Johnson and then against Hood. He defeated the Con¬ 
federates at Dalton , Besaca , Dallas, Lost Mountain, 
Kenesaw Mountain. He defeated Hood and captured 
Atlanta July 11. Hood then turned to Tennessee. 

Nashville (Dec. 15-16). Hood defeated Schofield 
at Franklin, and then fiercely attacked Thomas at 
Nashville. Thomas totally defeated Hood and destroyed 
his entire army. 

Sherman’s March to the Sea. In November Sher¬ 
man continued his march to the sea. He completely 
cut the Confederacy in two and captured Fort McAlis¬ 
ter and Savannah. 

The Wilderness (May 5-6). These two days of 
continuous fighting, styled “The Battle of the Wilder¬ 
ness,” resulted in each party holding their own. 

Spottsylvania (May 8-12). Here were five more 
days of continuous fighting between Grant and Lee in 
which both armies suffered tremeduous losses. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 


471 


Cold Harbor (June 3). Lee, who had the shelter 
of the entrenchments, repulsed Grant’s army, inflicting a 
terrible slaughter. The Union army lost 10,000 to Lee’s 
1 , 000 . 

Petersburg. Again Lee held Grant firmly in 
check. 

Siege of Richmond was continued, a confederate 
fort was blown up with its garrison of 300 men (Mine 
explosion). Grant attacked the Confederates and was 
hurled back with a loss of 4,000. On Aug. 8, Grant 
captured the Weldon Railroad . This was a severe loss 
to the Confederacy. 

Early's Raid. Early raided the Shenandoah and 
defeated General Lew Wallace at Monocacy River. On 
July 10 he appeared before Fort Stephens', re-inforce- 
ments arriving, he was forced to retreat. He next made 
a dash into Pennsylvania, burned Chambersburg and 
escaped with large booty. Sheridan, who succeeded 
Wallace, defeated Early at Winchester , Fishers Hill and 
Cedar Mountain , completely destroying his army. No 
further attempt was made to capture Washington. 

Red River Campaign. A joint naval and land 
expedition under Banks was successful at Fort Russy 
and Pleasant Hill. Being defeated by Dick Tayloi at 
Sabine Cross Roads , the enterprise was abandoned. 

The Navy. On Aug. 8, Farragut captured Fort 
Mobile. Gen. Terry and Commodore Foot captured 
Fort Fisher, N. C., Jan. 15, 1865. 

Confederate Cruisers. Vessels built in England 
and commissioned by the Confederacy, continued to prey 
on our commerce. The chief of these, the Alabama , 
was sunk in a fight with the Kearsage, commanded by 
Capt. Winslow , off the coast of England. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nominated 


m 


Cummings ’ JBncyclopoedin. 


Lincoln who received 212 electoral votes. The Democrats, 
Gen. McClellan, who had 21 votes. The Confederacy , 
Jefferson Davis, who had 81 electoral votes. 

Campaign (1865). 

Sherman in the Carolinas. In his march north 
Sherman captured and burned Columbia (Feb. 17). 
Two vigorous engagements were had with Johnson 
at Averyboro-uwA Bentonville where he was successful. 
He then joined the armies of Schofield and Terry. Their 
joint army, 100,000 strong, now marched North along 
the Neuse. 

Fort Steadman (March 25). Lee attacked the 
Union right at Fort Steadman but was repulsed; Grant 
closed on Richmond. 

Petersburg and Richmond (April 2-8). Here in 
one mighty assault by the armies of Grant and Sheridan, 
these last great strongholds of the Confederacy were 
taken. Lee evacuated Richmond, and the Union army 

V 

took possession April 3. 

Appomattox Court House. Here Lee found Sheri¬ 
dan in advance and Grant in the rear. In answer to a 
note from Grant, Lee surrendered. The “dream of the 
Confederacy was over.” 

Result. The north lost 300,000 in killed and 
wounded, and the South perhaps as many more. 

Assassination of Lincoln (April 14). This was 
indeed a sad ending to the war. Lincoln was shot 
while attending Ford’s Theatre, by John Wilkes Booth. 
The assassination of the President is now believed to be 
the plot of Booth alone, who also assaulted Secretary 
Seward, and that the execution of Mrs. Suratt was an 
unfortunate blunder. The whole civilized world joined 
the United States in mourning the loss of a great good 
President. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 478 

SIXTH EPOCH. 

RECONSTRUCTION—CURRENT EVENTS. 

The Army. The Union army numbered 1,000,000 
soldiers. It was peacefully disbanded ; all returning to 
their homes and occupations. 

Reconstruction. President Johnson recognized 
the war governments established by the Union armies 
in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louisiana. In 
other states he appointed Provisional Governments, 
authorized to call conventions. These conventions 
repealed the secession ordinances, repudiated the Con¬ 
federate war debt, and ratified the act of Congress abol¬ 
ishing slavery. On these conditions Johnson claimed 
the states should be re-admitted. He issued a proclama¬ 
tion admitting to citizenship all secessionists, upon tak¬ 
ing the oath of allegiance. Policy of Congress. Con¬ 
gress claimed the sole right to determine the conditions 
of admission. Ignoring Johnson’s orders and proclama¬ 
tions, they passed these bills in quick succession: 
Freedman's Bureau, providing for the protection of 
freed slaves and others ; Civil Bights , granting to Negroes 
the right of citizenship; Tenure-of-office Bill , making 
the consent of the Senate necessary to the removal of 
any officer. 

Universal Amnesty. President Johnson now issued 
an universal pardon to all the secessionists, Christmas 
day, 1868. 

Thirteenth Amendment, This amendment, abol¬ 
ishing slavery, being duly ratified by the states, was 
adopted Dec. 18, 1865. 

Impeachment. The trouble between the President 
and Congress became serious. In 1868 he sought to 
remove Secretary of War, Edward M. Stanton. This 


474 Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

so embittered Congress that the House drew up an 
impeachment. In the trial, the Senate lacked but one 
vote of the necessary two thirds for conviction. 

Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment which 
grants to all, full civil rights, irrespective of race or 
color, w T as adopted July 28, 1868. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomi¬ 
nated Gen. U. S. Grant; the Democrats, Horatio Sey¬ 
mour. The states not re-constructed, Virginia, Miss¬ 
issippi and Texas. Grant received 214 electoral votes ; 
Seymour, 80. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Purchase oe Alaska. In October 1868, Secretary 
of State, William H. Seward, negotiated the purchase of 
Alaska from Russia for $7, 200,000. 

The French in Mexico. Napoleon III assisted the 
Royalists of Mexico to defeat the Liberalists and then 
placed Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, on the throne 
as Emperor. The Civil War over, the United States 
turned their attention to Mexico. Napoleon was noti¬ 
fied that his possession of Mexico was a violation of 
the Monroe Doctrine. On July 19, 1867, Napoleon 
withdrew his army; Maximilian was defeated and shot. 

GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION (1869-75). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Pacific Railroad. This great enterprise linking 
ocean to ocean, 3000 miles across the continent, was 
completed 1869. 

Great Fires. A terrible fire occurred at Chicago, 
Oct. 8, 1871, which destroyed 25,000 houses, made 100,- 
000 homeless, and occasioned a total damage of $200,000,- 
000. The same year cyclone fires swept over Minnesota, 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


475 


Wisconsin and Michigan in which 1,500 people perished. 
Again in Boston, Nov. 9, a $70,000,000 fire occurred. 

The Atlantic Cable (July 1858). This great in¬ 
ternational enterprise, due to the energy and inventive 
genius of Cyrus W. Field, carried its first message from 
Valentia Bay, Ireland, to Heart's Content , Newfound¬ 
land, in July 1858. Great difficulty was encountered in 
the breaking of the cable, and its permanent success 
was not secured until 1865. 

Second Election. The Republicans re-nominated 
Grant; the Democrats , Horace Greeley, who was also en¬ 
dorsed by the bolting Republicans; the Straight Out 
Democrats and Labor Reform, Charles O’Connor; Prohi¬ 
bitionists, James R. Black; Revenue Reform, W. S. 
Groesbeck; Anti-Secret Society, Charles F. Adams. 
Grant received 286 electoral votes; Greeley, 63; O’Con¬ 
nor, 29,408 of a popular vote; Black, 5,608. 

Indian Wars. The Modoc Indians became hostile 
and refused to stay on their Oregon reservation. Troops 
were sent against them. During a negotiation with 
their chiefs, General Canby was treacherously shot; 
they were forced to surrender. In 1876, the Sioux re¬ 
fused to go on the reservation assigned them, and Gen¬ 
erals Terry and Custer were sent against them. Gen. 
Custer and his entire troop were killed on June 25. 
They were finally forced to accept the terms of the 
treaty. 

Railroad Panic. This trouble was precipitated by 
the failure of Jay Cooke & Co., of Philadephia. The 
great Pittsburg and other strikes came as a result and 
the country suffered general business depression. 

The Centennial. The one hundredth anniversary 
of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, 
was celebrated at Philadephia (1876) by a great Exhi- 


476 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


bition which arrested the attention of the whole world 
and proved a great success. 

Finance. In 1873, a bill was passed which demon¬ 
etized silver and made gold the unit of value. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomina¬ 
ted R. B. Hayes; the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden; the 
Prohibitionists, G. C. Smith ; the Greenback party, Peter 
Cooper; Anti-Secret Society, James B. Walker. The 
election hung upon the contested vote of Louisiana. 
Grant appointed a commission composed of eight repub¬ 
licans and seven democrats who decided by a strict party 
vote in favor of Hayes. Hayes, popular vote 4,033,950, 
electoral vote 185; Tilden, popular vote 4,284,885, elec¬ 
toral vote, 184; Peter Cooper, popular 81,740; Smith, 
popular vote 9,522. 

Foreign Affairs. 

China. In 1868, Anson Burlingame, ambassador to 
China, negotiated a treaty with that country which se¬ 
cured to the United States valuable commercial privi¬ 
leges. 

Treaty of Washington. Damages to our commerce 
by the Alabama and other so-called Confederate cruisers, 
was now demanded of England. This and other dis¬ 
putes were submitted to arbitrators who met at Geneva. 
They awarded the United States $15,000,000 as the Ala¬ 
bama claims. The North-west Boundary Dispute was 
submitted to the Emperor of Germany who decided in 
favor of the United States. 

San Domingo. The application of the republic of 
San Domingo for admission into the United States, was 
rejected by Congress. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 477 

HAYES’ ADMINISTRATION (1877-81). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Troops at the South. The national troops, station¬ 
ed at the south, were withdrawn. The Bland Bill was 
passed in 1878, making silver a legal tender for all debts. 
The southern Mississippi valley suffered a scourge of the 
yellow fever, resulting in the death of nearly 8,000. In 
1879, a Specie Payment Bill was passed which gave sil¬ 
ver more general circulation. The Ute Indians of the 
White River agency, angered at the government’s neg¬ 
lect to pay them promised moneys, fell upon the miners, 
committing some horrible massacres. Peace was restored 
in the presence of the troops. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomina¬ 
ted James A. Garfield; the Democrats, Winfield S. Han¬ 
cock; the Prohibitionists, Neal Dow; the Greenback 
party , James B. Weaver. Garfield, popular vote 4,449,- 
053, elecioral vote 211 ; Hancock, popular vote 4,442,- 
035, electoral vote 155 ; Dow, popular vote 10,305; Weav¬ 
er, popular vote 308,578. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Fishery Award. A dispute arose over the fisheries 
of the north-east coast. A commission authorized by 
the treaty of Washington, sat at Nova Scotia and 
awarded England $5,500,000. 

Chinese Treatie3 (1880). Two treaties were signed 
at Pekin, one concerning commerce and the other grant¬ 
ing to the United States the right to regulate Chinese 
immigration. 

GARFIELD’S ADMINISTRATION (1881-85). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Star Route Frauds. These were frauds growing 


487 


Cummingf Encyclopaedia. 


out of mail contracts. In a short time $2,000,000 of 
these swindling contracts were unearthed. 

Garfield’s Assassination. On July 2, 1881, while 
in company of Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, in 
the B. & O. depot at Washington, he was shot by one 
Charles Guiteau, a demented place seeker. He suffered 
until Sept. 19, when he died at Long Branch, N. J. 

Other events. Chester A. Arthur was immediately 
sworn into office. Great floods occurred in the Missis¬ 
sippi River in the spring of 1882, rendering 100,000 
homeless. 1883, saw the completion of the Brooklyn 
Bridge, the passage of the Civil Service Law , and the 
reduction of the letter postage from 3 to 2 cents. The 
territory of Alaska was organized, 1884, and the Cotton 
Exposition of New Orleans was a great success. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nominated 
James G. Blaine; the Democrats , Grover Cleveland; the 
Prohibitiojiists, John P. St. John; Labor , B. F. Butler. 
Cleveland, popular vote 4,913,243, electoral vote 219; 
Blaine, popular vote 4,084,150, electoral 182; Butler, 
popular vote 133,728; St. John, popular vote 151,062. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Chinese Immigration. In 1882, Congress passed 
the Chinese Immigration Act. This law prohibited im¬ 
migration of Chinese into the United States for a period 
of ten years; the period has since been extended. 

Mexico. In 1884 a treaty was entered into between 
the United States and Mexico which granted to our gov¬ 
ernment great commercial advantages. 

CLEVELAND’S FIRST ADMINISTRATION 

(1885-89). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Presidential Succession Bill. This bill provides 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


479 


as follows: In the event of there being no President or 
Vice President, the office falls to the cabinet in the 
order of the Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treas¬ 
ury, Attorney General, Postmaster General, Secretary of 
the Navy, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Interior, 
Secretary of Agriculture. 

Charleston Earthquake. In the summer of 1886, 
an earthquake occurred in the South. It shook the 
entire Atlantic Coast, doing great damage to the city 
of Charleston. 

Death of Great Generals. Grant, July 23, 1885; 
McClellan Oct. 28, 1885; Hancock, Feb. 9, 1886; Arthur, 
Nov. 8, 1886; Sheridan, Aug. 5, 1888. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomi¬ 
nated Benjamin Harrison, the Democrats , Grover Cleve¬ 
land; Harrison received 5,441,902 popular votes, and 
233 electoral votes; Cleveland, 5,538,560 popular votes, 
and 161 electoral votes. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Fisheries Dispute. Canada refused to allow the 
American fishing schooners to land their cargoes or to 
purchase supplies, even going so far as to seize some of 
our vessels. The dispute has been before Congress and 
Parliament several times, and has been argued before a 
joint commission. A treaty looking to its settlement was 
defeated in 1888. High-handed measures, on the part 
of the Dominion government, however, have long since 
ceased. A joint commision is now, Oct. 3 898, sitting at 
Quebec, considering that and other questions of dispute. 

Sealing Difficulties The United States, claiming 
dominion over the Behring sea, in 1886 captured several 
British vessels. On a protest they were released. Other 
British vessels were captured in 1887. The question 
of supremacy is still open. 


480 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

HARRISON’S ADMINISTRATION (1889-93). 

Domestic Affairs. 

The McKinley Bill. A high tariff measure known 
as the McKinley Bill, was passed during this adminis¬ 
tration. The law provided for a high protective tariff; 
the object being to protect home labor, and to provide 
sufficient revenue for the government. 

Pensions. The Indigent Pension Bill was passed dur¬ 
ing this administration ; the law granted a pension to all 
indigent soldiers or their beneficiaries. 

Presidential Election. The Republicans nomi¬ 
nated Harrison; the Democrats, Cleveland; People's, 
Weaver, and the Prohibitionists, Bidwell. Cleveland, 
popular vote 5,556,533, electoral vote 277; Harrison, 
popular vote 5,175,577, electoral vote 145; Weaver, pop¬ 
ular vote 1,222,045, electoral vote 22; Bidwell, popular 
vote 270,314. 

CLEVELAND’S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 

(1893-97). 

Domestic Affairs. 

The Sherman Bill. Cleveland called an extra ses¬ 
sion of Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchas¬ 
ing Bill. After a hard fight against its repeal by the 
friends of bimetallism, led by Richard Bland, of Mis¬ 
souri, and W. J. Bryan, of Nebraska, it passed; and as 
claimed by the bimetallists, further depreciated the bul¬ 
lion value of silver. 

The Bond Issue. John G. Carlisle, Secretary of 
the Treasury, asked for an issue of bonds to maintain 
the gold reserve. The issue was authorized to the 
amount of $263,000,000. 

The Wilson Bill. The Democratic party being 


Cummings' Encyclopmdta. 


481 


again in power, repealed the McKinley Bill, and substi¬ 
tuted therefore, the Wilson Bill, a measure providing 
for a more liberal tariff. 

The World's Fair. During the summer and fall 
of 1893, there was held in the city of Chicago, a great 
International exhibition. Every nation on earth was 
represented, and most of them by extensive exhibits. A 
spirit of friendly rivalry prevailed. It was a magnifi¬ 
cent success, and gave glory to the land of the stars and 
stripes. The California Exposition, following on the 
the wake of the World’s Fair, was a magnificent suc¬ 
cess, and fittingly sustained the reputation of the 
“Golden State.” 

Presidential Election. Finance and tariff became 
the chief features of this campaign. J Republicans, de¬ 
claring for a high tariff and International Bi-metallism, 
nominated William McKinley. The Democrats , declar¬ 
ing for Independent Bi-metallism and a moderate tar¬ 
iff, nominated William J. Bryan. The National Demo¬ 
crats , (the advocates of the single gold standard), nom¬ 
inated John M. Palmer. The People's Party endorsed 
Bryan, but nominated their own candidate for Vice- 
President. The Silver Republicans also endorsed Bry¬ 
an. The Prohibitionists nominated Levering. McKin¬ 
ley received 7,107,822 popular votes and 270 electoral 
votes; Bryan received 6,511,073 popular votes and 176 
electoral votes ; Levering received 130,683 popular votes ; 
Palmer received 133, 800 popular votes. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Anglo-Venezuelan Dispute. England threatened 
to force her claim in a boundary dispute with Venez¬ 
uela. Cleveland enforced the principle of the Monroe 
Doctrine, The trouble thereupon was settled by arbi- 


482 


Cummings' JSncyclopasdia . 


tration, based upon the report of a commission ap¬ 
pointed by Cleveland. 

Other Events. An Immigration Bill , which made 
certain restrictions, was vetoed by Cleveland. Cuba re¬ 
ceived much consideration by the President and Congress, 
all of which failed to solve the difficulty. An Anglo- 
American Treaty, looking to the arbitration of all dis¬ 
putes between England and the United States, was 
drawn up by Richard Olney, Secretary of State. 

McKINLEY’S ADMINISTRATION (1897- ). 

Domestic Affairs. 

Tariff. In the spring of 1897, McKinley called an 
extra session of Congress, the chief fruits of the labors 
of this session was the passage of the Dingley Tariff 
Bill. The efficiency of the law as a national measure is 
now being tested. 

Tennessee Exposition. In the winter of 1897 the 
State of Tennessee held an exposition that reached na¬ 
tional importance. The affair was a grand success and 
won for Tennessee an advanced position in the coronet 
of commonwealths. Nebraska held one in the summer 
of 1898. It spoke volumes for the rapidity with which 
that western commonwealth was forging to the front. 

Anglo-American Treaty. The arbitration treaty 
arranged by Mr. Olney was defeated in the Senate, 
failing of the necessary two-thirds vote. 

War Revenue. Congress passed June 13, 1898, a 
War Revenue Bill , providing for a war tax. Among 
the many features of the bill is a stamp tax on all legal 
documents. A bond issue was also authorized calling 
for $200,000,000; the amount was subscribed by popu¬ 
lar loan in less than one month. By July 14, the limit 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


483 


of the time to subscribe, more than a billion dollars were 
subscribed by private parties. It was another reminder 
to the world of the great financial resources of “Uncle 
Sam.” 

Hawaii. On July 7, 1898, by resolution of Con¬ 
gress, promptly signed by the President, the Hawaiian 
Islands, situated in the Pacific, were annexed to and 
made part of the United States. Senators Cullom and 
Morgan, and Representatives Hitt and Frear, together 
with Sanford B. Dole, were appointed a committee on 
government. On July 12, 1893, the stars and stripes 
first floated over our new possession. 

Foreign Affairs. 

The Seals. The governments of the United States, 
England, Russia and Japan, have app >inted a joint com¬ 
mission who are now, Oetobw, 1893, seeking a plan by 
which the sealing industry of the north seas may be pre¬ 
served. 

Destruction of the Maine. The United States 
battleship M tine was totally destroyed by the explosion 
of a torpedo mine while lying in H ivana h irbor on the 
night of February 15, 1898. A court of inq dry of which 
Commodore W. T. Sampson was president, found that 
it was destroyed from without as above, but failed to 
fix any direct responsibility. As the ship lay in a 
Spanish harbor and at a point where she was direct* d to 
anchor, Spain must bear the responsibility of her de- 
structi* n. It is the general belief that the government 
of Spain is entirety innocent of the deed, and that the 
dastardly act w T as the work of miscreants. 

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 

Cause. The injury to American interests on the 
island; the destruction of the Maine, and a determina- 


484 


Cummtngi 1 Mncyclopmdia* 


tion on the part of the Unit* d States government to 
bring about a cessation of hostilities on the island, were 
the direct causes of the war. Congress on April 19, 
1898, passed the following resolution: 

First. The people of the island of Cuba are and of 
right ought to be free and independent. 

Second. That it is the duty of the United States to 
demand, and the government of the United States does 
hereby demand, that the government of Spain at once re¬ 
linquish its authority and government in the island of Cuba 
and withdraw its land and naval forces from Cuba and 
Cuban waters. 

Third. That the president of the United States be, 
and hereby is, directed and empowered to use the entire 
land and naval forces of the United States, and to call into 
the actual service of the United States the militia of the 
several states to such an extent as may be necessary to 
carry this resolution into effe *t. 

Fourth. That the United States hereby disclaims 
any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, juris¬ 
diction or control over said island, except for the pacification 
thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accom¬ 
plished, to leave the government and control of the island to 
its people. 

The Ultimatum. On A* ril 20, McKinley, in per- 
su nee of the foregoing resolution, issued an ultimatum to 
Spain demanding that she withdraw h*»r land and naval 
forces from Cuba and Cuban waters by noon of Saturday, 
April 23, 1898. This paper was sent to our minister at Ma¬ 
drid General Woodford The Spanishgov<rnment,however, 
in anticipation of the ultimatum, handed Woodfoid his 
passport before he had an opportunity to present the pap^r. 

Declaration of War. On April 25 1898, war was 
formally declared as follow*: ‘-That war be and the same 
is hereby declared to exi^t and that war has existed since 
the 21st day of April, A. D. 1898, including said day, between 
the United States of Amer J ca and the Kingdom of Spain. 
That the President of the United S ates be and he hereby is 
dir< cted and empowered to use the enfre land and naval 
forces of the United States and to call into actual service of 
the United States the militia of the several states, to such 
extent as may be necessary to carry this act into effect.” 

The Blockade. President McKinley issued a proc¬ 
lamation directing a blockade of all the Cuban ports. 
Admiral Sampson at once effected a blockade of the 
ports of all important Cuban towns. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


485 


Battle or Cardenas. Cardenas, situated north of 
Havana, was attacked from its inner harbor by the 
American gunboats, Wilmington and Hudson, and the 
torpedo boat Winslow, on May 11. The Winslow was 
destroyed and Ensign Worth Big’ey and four others 
were killed. The disabled W r in*low was towed out of 
range of the Spanish fire. The order to attack was some¬ 
body's blunder; it gave to Spain her first victory. 

Battle of Cavite. On the breaking out of hostili¬ 
ties, Commodore George Dew^y, commanding the Asiatic 
squadron, was ordered to b ockade the city of Manila, 
Philippine Islands. As the American fl* et nt ared the 
bay, in the darkness of Sunday morning, May 1, 1898, 
they were attacked by the Spanish fleer. The story is 
most effectively told in Dewey’s own words: 

“Manila, May 1— The squadron arrived at Manila 
at daybreak this morning. It immediately engaged 
the enemy and destroyed the following Spanish vessels : 
Reina Cristina, Castilla, Don Antonio , Isle de Vila, Isle 
de Luzon, Isle de Cuba, General Laz<>, Marques Del 
Duero , El Corso, Valasco, one transport, Isle de Min¬ 
danao. The squadron is uninjured, and only a few men 
were slightly wounded. We have taken the fortifications 
and effected a landing at Cavite. We have 256 wounded 
Spaniards as prisoners, and the town of Manila is at our 
mercy. Dewey.” 

This marvelous sea fight surpassed anything in 
naval history; it eclipsed historic Trafalgar. The su¬ 
perb commander of this magn ficent victory, Commodore 
George Dewey, was promoted to the rank of Rear-Ad¬ 
miral, and was presented with a sword and the thanks 
of Congress. 

Merritt’s Expedition. Major General Merritt was 
made Governor-general of the Philippines, and at once 


486 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 

set out with an army of invasion to that far distant land. 
Part of the invading army under Generals Green and 
Anderson reached Cavite July 26. Generals Merritt and 
Otis arrived soon after. 

The Ladronfs. On June 21, the captain of the 
Charleston captured the Ladrone Islands. The Governor 
surrendered without resistance. He had net yet heard 
of the war. 

Bombardment of Santiago. Our fleet shut the 
Spanish squadron in Snntitg) h irb >r, an 1 bombarded 
the forts guarding the harbor, silencing many of the 
enemy’s guns. 

Sinking of the Merrimac. By order of Admiral 
Sampson, commanding the American squadron, Lieut. 
Richmond P. Hobson and seven other heroes, steamed the 
Merrimac into the neck of S mtiag) bay and deliberately 
sunk her, thinking to effectually bar the escape of the 
Spanish fleet then in the harbor under command of 
Admiral Cervera. No more heroic act is recorded in his¬ 
tory. They escaped serious injury from the sinking of 
the ship and the fire of the enemy’s guns. Their daring 
drew forth Spanish cheers. They were taken prisoners 
to Morro Castle, fairly treated and subsequently ex¬ 
changed. 

Invasion of Cuba. Major General Shafter with an 
army of 23,000 men effected a landing under protection 
of the American fleet, near the City of Santiago. The 
enemy gave stubborn resistance, and our marines suffer¬ 
ed a fierce fire from ambush. 

Guantanimo (June 14). Of the preliminary fights 
our forces suffered the most at this place. The Americans 
fought under great disadvantage but with a fierce daring 
that was irresistible. One after another of the Spanish 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


487 


outposts fell, and the invincible American army closed 
steadily on Santiago. 

Three Days Fight. The Spanish had advantageous 
positions on the heights of El Caney and San Jaun . 
To take these strongholds our army had uphill work. 
Fighting began on Friday morning, July 1, and at the 
close of eleven hours of desperate fighting, the enemy 
retired from El Caney toward Santiago. San Juan 
made stronger resistance, but it too, soon fell before the 
fearful charge of the Americans. The Spanish contested 
every point with commendable bravery, but the superb 
gallantry and superior skill of the Americans won the 
day. Fighting was resumed on Sunday but soon every 
outpost of the enemy had fallen, and Santiago lay with¬ 
in gunshot of our army. 

During the progress of the battle the Spanish fleet, 
then in the harbor of Santiago, inflicted much damage 
on our lines, on the other hand, the co-operation of 
Sampson’s fleet .did effective service. 

During these three days of fighting, Shafter’s aids, 
Generals Wheeler, Lawton, Sumner, Kent, Duffield, 
Chaffee, Wood and Bates, all won fresh laurels, engag¬ 
ing personal y in the thickest of the fight. The intrepid 
dash of Colonels Downs and Roosevelt at the head of 
their brave men, as well as the charge of Captains Ca- 
pron, Clarke and Rafferty, were no less heroic than the 
charge at Balaklava. 

Gen. Linares, commanding the Spanish, was se¬ 
verely wounded as was his successor, Gen. Del Rey, 
who was succeeded by Gen. Toral. Gen. Shafter’s en¬ 
tire army numbered 23,000. The American loss was; 
killed, 231; wounded, 1283; missing, 81. 

The Sea Fight. On Sunday July 3d, Admiral 
Cervera made a bold dash for liberty. In less than one 


488 


Cummings' jSncyclopctdiu. 


hour the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed. Save that 
of Dewey’s fight in Manila bay, history records no other 
such victory. Sampson had gone to consult with Shat¬ 
ter, and the fleet made the fight under command of Com¬ 
modore Schley. Sampson de:*patched as follows: 

“Playa Del Este,via Hayti, July 4, (8.15 a. m.). The 
fleet under my command offers the nation as a Fourth of 
July present, the destruction of the whole of Cervera’s 
fleet. No one escaped. It attempted to escape at 9:30 
a. m., and at 2 p. m. the last, the Cristobal Colon, 
had run ashore sixty miles west of Santiago, and let 
down her colors. The Infanta Maria Teresa , Oquando 
and Vizcaya were forced ashore, burned and blown up 
within twenty miles of Santiago. The Furor and Platon 
were destroyed within four miles of the port. Loss, 
one killed and two wounded. About 1,300 prisoners, 
including Admiral Cervera. Sampson.” 

Surrender of Santiago. General Shatter demand¬ 
ed of Gen. Toral the surrender of the city which he 
promptly refused and on July 10, also Sunday, bombard¬ 
ment was resumed. After much damage to the city, a 
white flag was raised and negotiations were resumed 
resulting in the surrender of the city, on conditions 
that the American government transport the surrendered 
army back to Spain. These unique and humane terms 
g anted the vanquished army when the city was at the 
mercy of the American gunners, grandly illustrates the 
unparalleled magnanimity of the American people. The 
surrender compromised not only the city of Santiago, 
but nearly the whole of the province, with 23,000 priso¬ 
ners and their entire army equipments. It was a glor¬ 
ious victory, and one that stamps a new epoch in the 
annals of civilized warfare. 

The city was formally taken on Sunday, July 17tb. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


480 


Gen. Toral surrendered his sword to Gen. Shatter who 
promptly returned it. The Stars and Stripes were flung 
from the palace of Santiago. By proclamation. President 
McKinley placed the ceded territory under the military 
protectorship of the United States, with Gen. Chambers 
McKibbon as Governor-general; McKibbon was succeed¬ 
ed by Gen. Wood. 

Bombardment of Nipe. On the 21st of July a de¬ 
tachment of Sampson's fleet, bombarded and took the 
■town of Nipe, on the north coast of Cuba, north of San¬ 
tiago. The Spanish gunboat, Jorge Juan , was de¬ 
stroyed. 

Invasion of Puerto Rico. At the fall of Santiago 
General Miles turned his attention to Puerto Rico. On 
July 25, a landing was effected at Guanica , on the 
southern coast, under the protection of the Amiriean 
fleet. Yeoman Lacey of the Gloucester hauled down the 
Spanish flag and replaced it with the Stars and Stripes. 
In, the skirmish four Spaniards were killed. 

On to San Juan. Then began the march on San 
Juan. Barring unimportant engagements now and 
then, the march was a holiday excursion. Town after 
town surrendered, many of them actually welcoming 
the victorious American army. The important city of 
Ponce ) surrendered without resistance on July 27th. 
On August 8, 9 and 10, the Americans, under Generals 
Schwan and Brooke, routed the Spaniards at Guayama , 
Hormigueros and Mayaguez. Gen. Miles was planning 
a general attack on San Juan, when the peace protocol 
was signed. 

Battle of Malate. On July 31, the Spanish at¬ 
tacked the American lines at Malate, near Manila. The 
Americans, under the immediate command of Gen. 
Greene, gave them a bloody repulse, with the loss of 13 

killed. 


490 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Peace. The Protocol (a preliminary treaty of 
peace) was signed August 12, 1898, and provided as 
follows: 1. That Spain shall relinquish all claim of 
sovereignty over and to Cuba. 2. That Puerto Rico 
and other Spanish Islands in the West Indies, and an 
island in the Ladrone*, to be selected by the United 
States, shall be ceded to the latter. 3. That the 
United States will occupy aud hold the city, bay and 
harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of 
peace, which shall determine the control and disposition 
of the Philippine Islands. The 4th, 5th and 6th clauses 
of the protocol provided for the evacuation of the Span¬ 
ish forces, the meeting of a peace commission of five 
from each country at Paris not later than Oct. 1st, and 
the suspension of all hostilities. The protocol was 
signed by Secretary William R. Day, for the United 
States, and M. Cambon, French ambassador, for Spain. 

The Fall of Manila. Like the famous battle of 
New Orleans the bombardment and surrender of Manila 
took place on the 13th of August, the next day after 
peace was signed. The attack was made by Admiral 
Dewe}? - in co-operation with the land forces under Gen¬ 
eral Merritt. After a fierce battD in which forty Amer¬ 
icans were killed, the city surrendered. The hand of 
the American forces,who contemplated further conquest, 
was stayed by the signing of the treaty of peace (pro¬ 
tocol). 

Treaty of Paris. A Spanish-American peace com¬ 
mission met at Paris in the fall of 1898. The United 
States was represented on the commission by William 
R. Day and Whitelaw Reid, and by Senators Cush¬ 
man K. Davis, William P. Fry and George Gray. The 
terms of the protocol were ratified; the Island of Luzon 
with the city of Manila was ceded to the United States. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 491 

These with minor concessions were embodied in a 
treaty. 

The Fever. Daring the progress of the Spanish- 
American War, many of the brave American soldiers 
met death by fever. The loss by fever far exceeded 
that in battle. Here let it be said that the heart of a grate¬ 
ful nation goes out to the noble Red Cross Society and 
the sweet Sisters of Charity, for their heroic services in 
caring for the dying and nursing the sick and wounded 
back to life. 

The Result of the War. The Spanish American 
War has brought glory to the land of Washington. In 
this brief war the Unite l States has acquired Puerto Rico 
together with other West India Islands, the island of 
Luzon with its important city of M tmla, besides innum¬ 
erable important commercial privileges. Cuba has 
secured her freedom, and whether she shall prove worthy 
the sacrifice, depends on future developments. Spain 
has lost her fleet and m my of her most imp >rtant col¬ 
onies. The war has cost, the U iited States $100,00.).000 
and more, and many of her brave young sons have 
given up their lives. The brilliancy of our naval vic¬ 
tories has no parallel in all history—henceforth she is 
“Mistress of the Seas.” 

Bear Island War. The Pillager Indians, a tribe 
of the Chippewas of Minnesota, claiming that an attempt 
was made to remove tnem from their farms, had for 
some time threatened trouble. On Oct. 5, 1898, the 
Pillagers of the Bear Island agency, made an a-sault on 
the U. S. troops, killing Major Wilkinson and several 
others. The troops were under command of Gen. Bacon. 
Colonel Sheehan, U. S. Marshall, who led an advance, 
received three bullet wounds. The Indians fled in their 
war canoes. The trouble was precipitated by the arrest 


402 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 







and forcible release by the Indians of Bug-ah-Ma-Ge - 
Shig , their chief, for illegal liquor selling. 

The Virden Riots. During a strike at the Virden 
mines, Illinois, the operators attempted to land imported 
negroes from the south. A riot occurred in which fif¬ 
teen men were killed and many wounded. 

The operators are under arrest for murder. Gover¬ 
nor Tanner has the state militia on the ground and has 
instructed them to prevent the landing of any imported 
negroes. The end is not yet. 

Puerto Rico. The Evacuation Commission, com¬ 
posed of Generals Brooke and Gordon, and Rear 
Admiral Schley, concluded their labors on October 18, 
1898, and at noon of that day the Stars and Stripes were 
flung to the breeze in t le city of San Juan De Puerto 
Rico. This beautiful island with its 806.708 souls and 
an area in square miles of 8,550 as well as other smaller 
islands, are now the United States’ West India posses¬ 
sions. 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

Preamble. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes nec¬ 
essary for one people to dissolve the political bands Which 
have connected them with another, and to assume, among 
the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, 
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the cau>es which impel them to the 
separat ; on. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident—that all men 
are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator 
with certain inalienable rights: tnat among these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these 
rights, governments are instituted amongmen, deriving their 
justpowers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever 
any form of government becomes destructive of thespends,it- 
is the right of the people to alter or abolish it,and to institute a 
new government, laying its foundation* on such principles, 


403 


Cummingt' Encyclopedia. 

and organizing its powers in such form , as to them shall seem 
most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will d'ctate that governments long established 
should not be changed for light and transient causes: and, 
accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are 
more disposed to sutfer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
right themselves ny abolishing the forms to which they are 
accustomed. But when along train of abuses and usurpa¬ 
tions, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design 
to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
it is their duty, to throw off such government,and to provide 
new guards for their fut ire security. Such has be m the - 
patient suff trance of these colonies, and such is now the 
necessity which constrains them to alter their form *r sys¬ 
tems of government. The history of the present king of 
Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa¬ 
tions, all having in direct object the establishment of an 
absolute tyranny over th se states. To prove this let facts 
be submitted to a candid world. 

Statements. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws the most whole¬ 
some and necessary for the public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of im¬ 
mediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their 
operations till his assent should be obtained; a d, when so 
suspended, he has utterly n< glected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommo¬ 
dation of large districts of people, unless those people would 
relinquish he r ght of representation in the legislature—a 
right in ‘stimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places 
unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of’ 
their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing 
them into compliance with his measure . 

5. He has dissolved re >resentative houses repeatedly 
for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the 
rights of the people. 

6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolu¬ 
tion to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative 
powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the peo¬ 
ple at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the 
meantime, exposed to atl the dangers of invasions from 
without, and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of 
these States; for that purpose obstructing the 1 ws for the 
naturalization of foreigners; refusin > to pass others to.en- 
courage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of land*. 

8. He ha* obstructed the administration of justice, by 


404 


Cummings' Encyclopedia . 


refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary pow- 
ers. 

9. He has made iudges dependent on his will alone for 
the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of 
their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent 
hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out 
their substance. 

11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing 
armies,without the consent of our Legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent 
of, and superior to the civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jur¬ 
isdiction foreign to our constitutions,and unacknowledged by 
our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legis¬ 
lation. 

14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among 
us. 

15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punish¬ 
ment for any murders which they should commit on the in¬ 
habitants of these States. 

16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 

17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a 
trial by jury. 

19. Kor transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pre¬ 
tended offenses. 

20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a 
neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary gov¬ 
ernment, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at 
once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies. 

21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most 
valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of 
our governments. 

22. For suspending our own Legi-latures,' and declar¬ 
ing themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all 
cases whatsoever. 

23. He has abdicated government here, bv declaring us 
out of his protection, and waging war against us. 

24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, 
burned our towns, and destroyed th lives of our people. 

25. He is at this time transporting large armies of for¬ 
eign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation 
and tyranny, already begun under circumstances of cruelty 
and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, 
and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

26. He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken cap¬ 
tive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to 
become the executioners of their friends and brethren or to 
fall themselves by their hands. 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


495 


27. He has excited domestic insurrection among- us, 
and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our 
frontiers the merciless Indian savages, wl oseknown rule of 
warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, 
’ and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned 
for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions 
have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince 
whose character is thus marked by every act which may de¬ 
fine a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our Rrit- 
ish brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, 
of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarran¬ 
table jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of 
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. 
We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, 
and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kin¬ 
dred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably 
interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too 
have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. 
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which de¬ 
nounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest 
of mankind—enemies in war; in peace,friends. 

The Resolution. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States 
of America in general Congress assembled, appealing to the 
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten¬ 
tions, do, in the nam and by the authority of the good peo¬ 
ple of these colonics, solemnly publish and declare that 
these United colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states; that they are absolved from all alleg¬ 
iance to the British crown, and that all political connection 
between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent 
states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, 
contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other 
acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And for the support of this Declaration with a firm reliance 
on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge 
to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
honor. 

(Signed) John Hancock, President. 

Charles Thompson, Secretary. 

Massachusetts. 

Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine 
and Elbridge Gerry. 


406 


Oummingi Encyclopctdia. 


Virginia. 

George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son, Benjamin Harrison, Carter Braxton, Thomas Nel¬ 
son, Jr. and Francis Lightfoot Lee. 

Maryland. 

Charles Carroll, Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone and 
William Paca. 

Pennsylvania. 

Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George 
Taylor, James Wilson and George Ross. 

New Hampshire. 

Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple and Matthew 
Thornton. 

Rhode Island. 

Stephen Hopkins and William Ellery. 

New York. 

William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis 
and Lewis Morris. 

Connecticut. 

Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Wil¬ 
liams and Oliver Wolcott. 

New Jersey. 

Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hop¬ 
kins, John Hart and Abraham Clark. 

Delaware. 

Caesar Rodney, George Read and Thomas M’Kean. 

North Carolina. 

William Hooper, Joseph Hewes and John Penn. 

South Carolina. 

Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas 
Lynch, Jr. and Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. 

Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall and George Walton. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia 


No. State 

1 Delaware 

2 Pennsylvania 

3 New Jersey 

4 Massachussett 

5 Connecticut 

6 Virginia 

7 Maryland 

8 S Carolina 

9 Georgia 

10 N Hampshire 

11 New York 

12 N Carolina 

13 Rhode Island 

14 Vermont 

15 Kentucky 

16 Tennessee 

17 Ohio 

18 Louisiana 

19 Indiana 

20 Mississippi 

21 Illinois 

22 Alabama 

23 Maine 

24 Missouri 

25 Arkansas 

26 Michigan 

27 Florida 

28 Texas 

29 Iowa 

30 Wisconsin 

31 California 

32 Min esota 

33 Oregon 

34 Kansas 

35 West Virginia 

36 Nevada 

37 Neb aska 

38 Colorado 

39 N Dakota 

40 S Dakota 

41 Montana 

42 Washington 

43 Wyoming 

44 Idaho 

45 Utah 


49T 

TABLE OF STATES. 


Date op 

Settlements State- 


Origin op Name 

When 

[ Where By Whom 

HOOD 

In honor of Lord 
Delaware 

1638 

Wilmington 

Swedes 

1787 

Latin-Penn’s Woods 

16*2 

Philadelphia 

Quakers 

1787 

Jei sey Island 

1618 

Bergen 

Dutch 

1787 

s Place of great hills 

1620 

Plymouth 

English 

1788 

Indian-Long River 

1635 

Hartford 

*4 

1788 

‘‘Virgin Queen” 

1607 

Jamestown 

•1 

1788 

In honor of Queen 
Henrietta Maria 

1634 

St Mary’s 

44 

1788 

In honor of <’harles II 1670 

C u teret 

14 

1788 

In honor of King 
George 

1733 

Savannah 

44 

1788 

Htmpshire, England 

1623 

Portsmouth 

41 

1788 

In honor ol the Duke 
of York 

1613 

New York 

Dutch 

1788 

In honor of Charles II 1663 

Albermarle 

English 

1789 

“Red Island” 

1 35 

Providence 

44 

1790 

French-Green Moun 
tain 

‘ 1724 

Brattleboro 

»( 

1791 

Indian-dark and 
bloody ground 

1775 

Booneville 

Daniel 

Boone 

1792 

Indian-Ri er with 
great bend 

1780 

Nashville 

Ja f»es 
Roberts 

1796 

Indian-beautiful river 1680 

Marietta 

French 

1802 

In honor of Loui3 XIV 16*2 

New Orleans 

French 

1812 

Indian 

1694 

Vincennes 

French 

1816 

Indian-Great Father 
of Waters 

1700 

Natchez 

French 

1817 

Indian-river of men 

1682 

Kaskaskia 

French 

1818 

I dian-here we rest 

1702 

Mobile 

French 

1819 

Main land 

1623 

Bristol 

English 

1820 

Indian-muddy water 

1755 

St Genevieve 

French 

1821 

Indian 

1685 

Hele a 

French 

1836 

Indian great lake 

1668 

St Marv’s 

French 

l v 37 

Spanish-blooming 

1565 

Sc Augus'ine 

Spanish 

1845 

Lone Star 

1684 

Fc St Louis 

French 

1845 

Ir.dian-drowsv o^es 

1788 

Dubuque 

French 

1846 

Indian-gathering of 
wate s 

1745 

Green Bay 

French 

1848 

Spani-h 

1769 

San Diego 

Spanish 

1850 

Indian-cloudy water 

1679 

Lacrosse 

French 

1868 

Spanish 

2792 

A storia 

Americans 1859 

Indian-smoky water 

1773 

Foit Leaven¬ 
worth 

French 

1861 

From Virginia 

1640 


1864 

Indian 

1818 

Genoa 

French 

1864 

lndian-water valley 

1741 


French 

1867 

Spanish 

1712 


Spanish 

1876 

Indian 

1784 


Americans 

1889 

Indian 

1784 


44 

18 9 

Indian 

1782 


44 

1889 

Washington 

1796 


44 

1889 

Indian 

1790 


44 

1890 

Indian 

1788 


44 

1890 

Indian 

1795 


44 

1896 



498 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 
TERRITORIES. 


Alaska, New Mexico, Arizona, Indian, Oklahoma, 
Puerto Rico and other small West India Islands, one of 
the Ladrone Islands and part of the Philippines. (See 
Spansih-American War.) 


Civil Government of the United 

States. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Good Government means the exercise of authority 
looking to the promotion oi justice, peace, good will, and 
prosperity among the people; whether that authority be 
exercised in the family, in the state or elsewhere. The 
term “Civil Government,” means the authority the 
State exercises over its subjects. 

Forms. 

Biblica l — C o m m on . 

BIB1LICAL. 

Patriarchal — Theocratic. 

The Patriarchal governments of the early ages were 
simply family or tribe governments. A certain ruler 
was recognized as the lawgiver (Patriarch). Abraham’s 
was an example of this form of government. 

The Theocracy was the old Hebrew form of govern¬ 
ment. The early Hebrews believed their laws were 
received direct from God, and were executed by their 
religious rulers (law givers). 

Common. 

Monarchy-Democracy. 

Monarchy. 

Absolute—Constitutional. 

An Absolute Monarchy is one in which the ruler 
has the whole governing power in his own hands, and 

499 


100 


Cummings ’ Encyclopedia. 


whose power to exercise it is unlimited. An absolute 
monarchy is sometimes called a despotism. Russia and 
Turkey are examples of this form of government. 

Constitutional. 

A Limited Monarchy is one in which the ruler’s 
power is limited by certain constitutional provisions; 
Germany and England are examples. An Aristocracy , 
is a limited, or constitutional monarchy where the con¬ 
stitution grants to a privileged class a share in the gov¬ 
ernment; the House of Lords, England, is an example. 

Democracy. 

Popular-Representative. 

A Democracy, pure and simple, is where the whole 
people assemble to make all their laws. This of course, 
is a crude and cumbersome method. The framers of 
the constitution have substituted for this a representa¬ 
tive form of democracy; a Republican form of govern¬ 
ment : a government where the people make their laws 
through representatives whom they elect. A Republic , 
therefore, is a Representative Democracy, where the 
laws are made, and the government administered by 
representatives elected by the people. The United 
States is a Republic. 

UNITED STATES. 

The United States of America is a confederation of 
states and territories, united under one general govern¬ 
ment ; there are forty-five states, seven territories and the 
District of Columbia. The several states have each 
their own government fashioned after the general gov¬ 
ernment, but subject to it in matters national only. 
The territories have appointive governments under di- 


Gumming *’ Encyclopedia. $01 

rect control of the general government. The District of 
Columbia is under supervision of Congress; the resi¬ 
dents of the city have not the right of suffrage. 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 

Branches. 

Legislative—Executive—Judicial. 

Legislative (Congress). 

Senate-House of Representatives. 

Congress. 

Congress is a term meaning the legislative (lawmak¬ 
ing) branch of the government, consisting of the Senate 
and House of Representatives. Congress meets the first 
Monday of December, each year. See Constitution, 
this volume. 

Senate. 

Number— Election- Term-Eligibility-Salary- Duties. 

There are two Senators from each state, making in 
this present session, 1897-98, ninety. The senators are 
elected by the Legislatures of their respective states for 
a term of six years; it was originally intended that one- 
third the whole number should be elected each year. 
While this plan has been interfered with somewhat in 
the election of senators from new states, yet there are 
always senators of some experience in every session. 
Thirty years of age, nine years a citizen of the United 
States, an inhabitant of the state from which election 
is sought, are the conditions of eligibility. The salary 
of a senator is $5,000 and mileage. 

House of Representatives. 

Number — Election — Term — Eligibility — Salary — Duties. 

The number of Representatives in Congress is 
apportioned according to the population. The present 


502 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


ratio is 173,901. fixing our present number of Congress¬ 
men at 357. The ratio will likely change after our next 
census, and the ratio increased so as not to add any 
more to our already unwieldy House. The representa¬ 
tives are elected by the people of their respective dis¬ 
tricts, for a term of two years. Twenty five years of 
age, seven years a citizen of the United States, and an 
inhabitant of the state, are conditions of eligibility. 
The salary of a Representative is $5,000, and mileage. 

Executive Department. 

President — Vice President. 

President. 

Eligibility — Term — Election — Salary — Duties. 

The conditions of eligibility to the office of Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, require; (a) that the aspirant 
shall be a native-born citizen; (b) that he shall have 
reached the age of thirty five years; (c) and that he 
shall have resided within the United States for fourteen 
years next preceding his election. An aspirant for Vice 
President must have the same qualifications as those for 
President; this for the reason that the Vice President 
becomes President in the event of the death of the Pres¬ 
ident. 

Election. Each state may select, as its Legisla¬ 
ture directs, as many Electors as it has Representatives 
and Senators. These Electors meet in their respective 
states and vote by ballot for President and Vice Presi¬ 
dent; the result of this vote is certified to, and sent 
under seal, to the president of the United States Senate. 
The president of the Senate shall open the certificates 
and count the votes in the presence of the Senate and 
House; the person receiving the majority of the whole 
number of votes, is elected President. If there be no 


Cummings j Mncyclopcbdia. 


503 


choice for President, the election goes to the House, in 
which case each state has one vote through her delega¬ 
tion. The President is elected for a term of four years, 
and receives a salary of $50,000 per year. The Vice- 
President is elected in the same manner and for the same 
term as the President, and receives a salary of $8,000. 
If the Electoral College fails to select a Vice President, 
the election goes to the Senate. See Constitution, this 
volume. 

Judiciary Department. 

The Judiciary department of the United States 
consists of the Supreme Court, and the other inferior 
Federal Courts of the country. The Supreme Court 
consists of eight Associate, and one Chief Justice. 
They are the law-interpreting branch of the government 
and sit in judgment on the laws of the country. They 
try cases of national and inter-state importance, and, 
when required, determine the constitutionality of acts 
of Congress. The associate Justices receive a salary of 
$10,000, and the Chief Justice, $10,500. See Constitu¬ 
tion, this volume. 

Miscellaneous. 

1. Representation. The territories are entitled 
to one Representative in Congress, who may take part 
in the proceedings, except to vote. 

2. Congress. The term “Congress;” as, the fif¬ 
tieth Conyi'ess , means the two sessions of that body. 

3. Revenue. All Revenue Bills must originate in 
the House of Representatives. 

4. Laws. A bill becomes a law after passing both 
houses; (1) in receiving the President’s signature; (2) 
in remaining 10 days on his desk without his signature; 
(3) in passing both houses by a two-thirds vote over his 
veto. 


504 


Cummingt' Mncyclopotdia. 


5. Aliens are unnaturalized residents who are 
born in a foreign country. They may become citizens 
by naturalization. 

6. The Laws of naturalization are fixed by Con¬ 
gress and are usually administered by the courts; an 
alien, complying with them, becomes a citizen. 

7. Naturalization. The candidate for citizen¬ 
ship first files a certificate of his intentions. Then, 
after the expiration of two years, if he can satisfy the 
court that he is sufficiently intelligent; that he has re¬ 
sided within the United States five years, and within 
the particular state, one year, he is admitted to citizen¬ 
ship upon his taking the oath renouncing allegiance to 
his old country, and pledging support to the Constitu¬ 
tion of the United States. 

8. Copyright. A Copyright, which guarantees to 
the author, or to the one securing it, an exclusive con¬ 
trol of the thing protected, for a period of twenty-eight 
years; at the expiration of this time, if application is 
made six months previous, an additional period of four¬ 
teen years may be had, is secured as follrws: By filing 
with the Librarian of Congress, a printed or typewritten 
copy of the title page or the book, and, no later than 
the day of publication, two copies of the best edition of 
the book. Notice of the copyright must appear on the 
title page, or the one following. The fee for recording 
the application is 50 cents, and if a certificate of the 
records is required, 50 cents additional. 

9. Patent right. A patent-right may be secured 
from the Commissioner of Patents, upon filing drawings, 
models, proof of originality, etc., and the payment of 
the fee. A patent-right lasts for seventeen years. 

10. Piracy, is forcible robbery and depredations 
on the high seas. 


Cummingt ’ Encyclopaedia. 


505 


11. A Declaration of War, is the sole right of 
Congress. 

Letters of Marque and Reprisal, are commissions 
issued to Privateers, by Congress, authorizing the seiz¬ 
ure of the property of foreign nations or of their sub¬ 
jects. 

13. Treaties. The President, the Secretary of 
State and other cabinet officers, generally draw up a 
treaty, but the consent of two-thirds of the senate is re¬ 
quired to make it a law of international intercourse. 

14. Bills of Attainder, and Ex post facto Laws, 
are prohibited to Congress and to the states. 

15. International Law, or the Liw of Nations, 
consiss of certain fixed rules of right, justice and honor, 
recognized by the civilized nations of the. earth. 

16. Belligerency is generally understood to mean 
a recog lition by a neutral country, of the combatants’ 
rights to fight. It is rarely accorded a country unless 
there is some form of fixed government. Belligerency 
imp'ies a friendly neutrality. 

17. Right of Search. The right of search by 
the belligerents extends to p ivate merchant vessels of a 
neutral nation, but not to war ships. 

18. An Eyibargo is an order detaining a vessel in 
port. A Civil Embargo, one directed against a coun¬ 
try’s own vessel; a Hostile Embargo, against that of a 
foreign country. 

19. Ministers and Embassadors. A Minister is a per. 
manent and resident representative of one country at 
the capital of another; an embtssador is a special repre¬ 
sentative of one country to another. M nisters and am¬ 
bassadors and their households, are not subject to the 
laws of the country in which they reside. 

20. Blockade. The blockade of an enemy’s port by 


506 Cummings' Encyclopedia. 

a belligerent, forbids the entry of vessels of a neutral 
nation. 

Contraband of War. Munitions (contraband) of 
war, cannot be supplied to a belligerent by a neutral 
nation, except at risk of confiscation. 

Neutrality. Citizens of a neutral nation may en¬ 
list in the armies of a belligerent nation. 


Constitution of the United States. 

PREAMBLE. 

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran¬ 
quillity, provide for the common defense, promote the gen¬ 
eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu¬ 
tion for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I.—Legislative Department. 

SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted 
shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which 
shall consist of a Senate and House'of Representatives. 

SECTION II.-Clause 1. The House of Representatives 
shall be composed of members chosen every second year by 
the people of the several States, and the electors in each 
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of 
the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall 
not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been 
seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which 
he shall be chosen. 

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be ap¬ 
portioned among the several States which may be included 
within this Union, according to their respective numbers, 
which shall be determined by adding to the whole number 
of free persons, including those bound to service for a term 
of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made with¬ 
in three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one rep¬ 
resentative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; 
Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plan¬ 
tations, one; Connecticut,five; New York, six; New Jersey, 
four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; 
Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; 
and Georgia, three. 

Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation 

507 


508 


Gumming #’ Encyclopedia. 


from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose 
their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole 
power of impeachment. 

SECTION III.—Clause 1. The Senate of the United 
States shall be composed of two senators from each State, 
chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. 

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled 
in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided 
as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the 
senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration 
of the second year; of the se ondclass, at the expiration of 
the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of 
the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every sec¬ 
ond year: and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other¬ 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the 
executive thereof may make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill 
such vacancies. 

Clause 8. No person shall be a senator who shall not 
have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be 
chosen. 

Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States 
shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, un¬ 
less they be equally divided. 

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, 
and also a president pro tempore , in the absence <*f the V ce- 
President, or when he shall exercise the office of President 
of the United States. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try 
all impeachments: when sitting for that purpose, they shall 
be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside; and no per¬ 
son shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds 
of the members present. 

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not 
extend further than to removal from office, and disqualifi¬ 
cation to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit 
under the United S ates; but the party convicted shall 
nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV. -Clause 1. The times, places, and manner 
of holding elect ons for senators and representatives shall 
be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but 
the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 


Cummings’ Encyclopaedia. 


509 


Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday 
in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different 
day. 

SECTION V.—Clause 1. Each house shall be the judge 
of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own mem¬ 
bers, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to 
do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day 
to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of 
absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties 
as each house may provide. 

Clause 2. Each hous-» may determine the rules of its 
proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, 
and, with the co currence of two thirds, expel a member. 

Clause 3. Each hou>e shall keep a j >urnal of its pro¬ 
ceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting 
such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and 
the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any 
question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be 
entered on the journal. 

Clause 4. Neither house, during the session of Con¬ 
gress, shall without the consent of the other, adjourn for 
more than three days, nor to any other place than that in 
which the two h »uses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI —Clause 1. The senators and represen¬ 
tatives shall receive a compensation for their servic -s, to be 
ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the Uni¬ 
ted States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, 
and breach of the p^ace, be privileged from arrest during 
their attendance at the session of their respectives houses, 
and in going to and returning from the same; and for any 
speech nr debate in e ther house, they shall not be question¬ 
ed in any other place. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during 
the tim < for which he wa< elected, be appointed to any civil 
office under the authority of the United States, which shall 
have been created, or the emoluments wher >of shall have 
been increased, during such time; and no person holding 
any office under the United States shall be a member of 
either house during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII.— Clause 1. All bills for raising reve¬ 
nue shall originate in the House of Representativ \s; but the 
Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on 
other bills. 

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the 
House of Representatives an 1 the Senate, shall, before it 
become a law, be present d to the President of the United 
States; if he appr >ve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall 
return it. with his objections, to that house in which 
it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections 


510 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If 
after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall 
agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be 
reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it 
shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both 
houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names 
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered 
on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall 
not be returned by the President within ten days (Sunday 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by th«ir adjournment prevent its return, 
in which case it st-all not be a law. 

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which 
the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives 
may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) 
shall be presented to the President of the United States; 
and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by 
him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two 
thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord¬ 
ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a 
bill. 

SECTION VIII. - Clause 1. The Congress shall have 
power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and 
general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, 
and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the 
United States; 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign 
nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian 
tribes; 

Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturaliza¬ 
tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies 
throughout the United States; 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and 
measures; 

Clause 6. To provide for the pvnifl rrent of counter¬ 
feiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 

Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post roads; 

Clause 8. To promote the procress of science and 
useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and 
inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries; 

Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the 
Supreme Court; 

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies 
committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of 
nations; 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


511 


Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque 
and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
and water; 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appro¬ 
priation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than 
two years; 

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and 
regulation of the land and naval forces ; 

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to 
execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and 
repel invasions; 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and 
disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them 
as may be employed in the service of the United States, 
reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the 
officers, and the authority of training the militia accouling 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all 
cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding-ten miles 
square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the 
acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government 
of the United States, and to exercise like authority ov« r all 
places purchased by the consnnt of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build¬ 
ings ; - And 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be neces¬ 
sary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing 
powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution 
in the government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX.— Clause 1. The migration or impor¬ 
tation of such persons as any of the States now existing 
shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, 
not exceeding ten dollars for each person 

Clause 2 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or 
invasion the public safety may require it. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law 
shall be passed. 

Clause 4 No capitation or other direct tax shall be 
laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration here¬ 
inbefore directed to be taken. 

Clause 5 . No tax or duty shall be laid on articles 
exported from any State. 

Clause 6. ‘No preference shall be given by any regu¬ 
lation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 


512 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one 
State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

Cl ause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury 
but in consequence of appropriations made by law: and a 
regular statement and account of the receipts and expendi¬ 
tures of all public money shall be published from time to 
time. 

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be eranted by 
the United States: And no person holding any office of 
profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the 
Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office or title, 
of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign 
state! 

SECTION X.— Clause 1. No State shall enter into 
any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of 
marque and reprisal; coin money; emitbills of credit; make 
any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts; pa-s any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title 
of nobility. 

Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the 
Congress, lay any impost o • duties on imports or exports, 
except what may be absolutely necessary for execut¬ 
ing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties 
and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, 
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; 
and all such laws shall be suuject to the revision and control 
of the Congress. 

Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of 
Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of- 
war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact 
with another Stare, or with a foreign power, or engage in 
war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

Alt ITCLE II.—Executive Department. 

SEC HON I — Clause 1. The executive power shall 
be vested in a President of the United States of America. 
He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, 
together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, 
be elected as follows: 

Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner 
as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, 
equal to the whole number of senators and representatives 
to which the State may be enti led in the Congress; but no 
senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust 
or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an 
elector. 

Clause 3. The Congress may determine the time of 
choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give 
their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the 
United States. 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


i>n 

Clause 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, 
or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption 
of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of Presi¬ 
dent; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who 
shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

Clause 5. In case of the removal of the President 
from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to dis¬ 
charge the powers and duties of the said office, the same 
shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may 
by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, 
or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such 
officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, 
or a President, shall be elected. 

Clause 6. The President shall, at stated times, 
receive for his services a compensation which shall neither 
be increased nor diminished during the period for which he 
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that 
period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Clause 7. Before he enter on the execution of his 
office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: —“ I 
do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti¬ 
tution of the United States.” 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The President shall be 
commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United 
States, and of the militia of the several States, when called 
into the actual service of the United States; he may re¬ 
quire the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each 
of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to 
the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have pow¬ 
er to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the ad¬ 
vice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided 
two thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall 
nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other offi¬ 
cers of the United States, whose appointments are not here¬ 
in otherwise provided for, and which shall be established 
by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment 
of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Presi¬ 
dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart¬ 
ments. 

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up 
all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the 


514 


Cummings' Encyclopedia. 


Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the 
end of their next session. 

SECTION III.—He shall from time to time give to 
the Congress information of the state of the Union, and rec¬ 
ommend to their consideration such measures as he shall 
judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary 
occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in 
case of disagreement between them with respect to the time 
of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he 
shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other 
public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faith¬ 
fully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the 
United States. 

SECTION IV.—The President, Vice-President, and 
all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from 
office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bri¬ 
bery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. Judicial Department. 

SECTION I.—The judicial power of the United States 
shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as th^ Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior 
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensa¬ 
tion which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The judicial power shall 
extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this 
Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under their authority;-to 
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls;—to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; 
—to controversies to which the United States shall be a 
party;—to controversies between two or more States; be¬ 
tween a State and citizens of another State; -between citizens 
of different States;-between citizens of the same States 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and between 
a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, 
or subjects. 

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other 
public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State 
shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original juris¬ 
diction. In all the other cases befoie mentioned, the Su¬ 
preme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to 
law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regula¬ 
tions as the Congress shall make. 

Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of 
impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held 
in the state where the said crimes shall have been commit- 


Cummings' Encyclopedia, 


515 


ted; but when not committed within any State, the trial 
shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law 
have directed. 

SECTION III. -Clause 1 . Treason against the 
United States shall consist only in levying war against 
them, or in adhering to the r enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort. 

Clause 2. No person shall be cmvicted of treason, 
unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt 
act, or on confession in open court. 

Clause 3. The Congress shall have power to declare 
the punishment of treason; but no attainder of t reason shall 
work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the 
life tf the per-on at'a n ted. 

AR i’ICLE IV.—General Provisions. 

SECTION I. —Full faith and credit shall he given in 
each State io the public acts, records, and judicial proceed¬ 
ings ol every other State; and the Congress may by veneial 
laws prescribe the manner in wlrch such acts, records, and 
proceedings shall be proved, and the effect th reof. 

• SECTION It.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State 
shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens 
in the several States. 

Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, 
felonv. or other crime, who shall flee from ju tice. and be 
found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive 
authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, 
to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

Ci ause 3. No person held to service or labor in one 
State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, 
in consequ nee of any law or regulation therein, be dis¬ 
charged Irom such service or labor, but shall be del vered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
be due. 

SECTION III.— Clause 1. New States may be ad¬ 
mitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State 
shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any 
other State: nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the 
Congress. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose 
of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the 
territory orotlmi property belonging to the United States; 
and nothing in this Constitution shall be'so cons rued as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic¬ 
ular State. 

SECTION IV.—The United States shall guarantee to 


Cummings' Xncgelop&dia* 


1116 

every State in this Union a republican form of government, 
and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on 
application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the 
Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V.—Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this 
Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of 
two thirds of the several States, s all call a convention for 
proposing amendments, which in either case, shall be valid 
to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislwtures of three fourths of the 
several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, 
as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed 
by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may 
be made prior to the year one housand eight hundred and 
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses 
in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
in the Senate.* 

ARTICLE VI.—Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Clause 1 . All debts contracted, and engagements 
entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, 
as under the confederation. 

Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the 
United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; 
and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the 
authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of 
the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound there¬ 
by, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the 
contrary notwithstanding. 

Clause 3. The senators and representatives before 
mentioned, and the members of the s< veral State Legisla¬ 
tures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the 
United States and of the several States, shall be bound by 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no 
religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII.—Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall 
be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution be¬ 
tween the State** so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the 
States present, the seventh day of September, in 
the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred 
and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 


Cummingi ’ Encyclopcedia. 8 If 


In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our 
names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President , and Deputy fr^m Virginia. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. DELAWARE. 

John Langdon, George Reed, 


Nicholas Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King. 

( ON NECTICUT. 


Gunning Bedford, Jr., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 
James McHenry, 


William Samuel Johnson, Daniel Carroll, 


Roger Sherman. 


Daniel of St. Thomas 
Jenifer. 


NEW YORK. 
Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 
William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 


VIRGINIA. 

John Blair. 

James Madison, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 
William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 


PENNSYLVANIA 
Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mtfflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George ClyMer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 
John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA. 
William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 


Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 

AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE I.—Congress shall make no law respecting 
an establishment of religion, or prohibiting rhe free exercise 
thereof: or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; 
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the government for redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE IT.—A well-regulated militia, being nec¬ 
essary to the security of a free State, the right of the people 
to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. - No soldiers shall, in time of peace,be 
quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, 
nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV—The right of the people to be secure 


518 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia . 

in the'r persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreas¬ 
onable searches and scizmes, shall not be violated, and no 
wai rants si all issue, but * pen probable cause, supported 
by oath or afflimathm, and part'cularly describing the 
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V.—No person shall be held to answer for 
a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a pres* nt- 
ment or ind ctment of a grand jury,exc pt in cases arising 
in the land or na val forces, or in the militia, v* hen in actual 
s*rvice in t : me of war and public danger; nor shall any per¬ 
son be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeop¬ 
ardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelh d in any criminal 
case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of 
life, liberty, or p operty, without due process of law; nor 
shall private property be taken for public use, without just 
compensation. 

ARTICLE VI.- In all criminal prosecutions, the ac¬ 
cused shall « njoy the right to a spe< dy and public trial, by 
an impartial jure of the State and district wherein t> e 
crime shall have be* n committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of 
the nature and cause of the acecu^ation; to l e c nfronted 
with the witnesses against him, to havecompu sory proc ss 
for obtaining witnesses i:i his favor, and to have the assist¬ 
ance of counsel lor his defense. 

ARTICLE VII.—In suits at common law, where tho 
value in contr versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of 
trial by jury shall be pr« served, and no fact tr ed by a jury 
shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. —Excessive bail shall not be requir¬ 
ed, nor excessive fines imposed,nor cruel and unusual pun¬ 
ishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX.—The enumeration in the Constitution 
of certain r'ghts, shall not be construed todeny or disparage 
others retained by the people. 

AR I ICLE X.—The powers not delegated to the Uni¬ 
ted States b\ the Constitution, nor ptohibited by it to the 
States, ate reserved to the States respectively, or to the 
ptople. 

ARTICLE XI.—The judicial power of the United 
States shall not be constru d to ex end t-» any suit m law or 
equity, commenced or i rosecuted against one of the United 
States by citizens of anoti.er State, or by citizens orsubjects 
of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII.—The electors shall meet in their re¬ 
spective States, and vote by bailor for President and Vice- 
President, one of whom at least, shall not be an inhabitant 
of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


519 


ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct 
ballots th * person voted for as Vice-President; and they 
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Presi¬ 
dent, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of 
the number of votes tor each, which lists they shall sign and 
certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the government 
of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate; 
- the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi¬ 
cates, and the votes shall then be counted;—the person 
having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highfst num¬ 
bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
President, the House of Representatives shall choose im¬ 
mediately, by ballot, the President. Butin choosing the 
President, the votes shall be taken by States, the represen¬ 
tation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose *ha,ll consist of a member or members from two 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if the House o' Representa¬ 
tives shall not choose a President whenever the right of 
choice shall devolve upon them, hef< re the fourth day of 
March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as 
President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
disability of the President. The person having the greatest 
number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall 
consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
United States. 

ARTICLE XIII.— Section 1. Neither slavery nor 
involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, 
whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV.— Section 1. All persons born or 
naturalized in the United States, and subject to the juris¬ 
diction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the 
State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce 
anv law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive 


520 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process 
of law, nor deny to any person withia its jurisdiction the 
equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall he appointed among 
the several States according to their respective numbers, 
counting the whole number of persons in each State exclud¬ 
ing Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of electors for } resident and Vice- 
President of the United States, representatives in Congress, 
the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members 
of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male in¬ 
habitants of such State,being twenty-one years of age and 
citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except 
for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in 
such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or represen¬ 
tative in Congress, or elector of Presidentor Vice-President, 
or hold any office civil or military, under the United 
States, or under any State, who, having previously taken 
an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the Uni¬ 
ted States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as 
an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the 
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or 
comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a 
vote of tw r o thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the 
United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred 
for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppress¬ 
ing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay 
any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or re¬ 
bellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss 
or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obliga¬ 
tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by 
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV.— Section 1. The rights of citizens of 
the United '•tates to vote shall not be denied or abridged by 
the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 

Parliamentary practice, as the term is commonly 
understood, is the scientific government of deliberative 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia. 


521 


bodies. These rules may be actual enactments of legis¬ 
lative bodies, or simply rules accepted by common con¬ 
sent of the body governed by them. 

QUORUM. 

A Quorum is the minimum number necessary to 
the transaction of business. Deliberative bodies gem r- 
ally fix the number necessary for a quorum, at some 
reasonable proportion of the whole body. Should there 
be no number fixed, t\vo thirds is necessary for a quorum. 

ORDER OF BUSINESS. 

Every deliberative body should have a prescribed 
order of business. A majority vote is usually neces¬ 
sary to pass a motion. Each assembly can regulate this 
matter to best suit itself. 

DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT. 

The president calls the assembly to order at the 
time fixed and names the proper order of business. He 
should receive and submit all proper motions and propo¬ 
sitions of members; put all questions for vote, and an¬ 
nounce the result. In debate, he should firmly enforce 
the rules of order and decorum. It is the duty of the 
president to receive and announce to the assembly all 
communications affecting the same. The president de¬ 
cides all points of order; enforces the rules of the assem¬ 
bly ; he may read sitting, but it is his duty to rise to his 
feet when putting a motion. The name, number and 
duties of the other officers, are generally fixed by the 
assembly they are called to serve. 

GENERAL MOTIONS. 

The Previous Question. The purpose of this mo¬ 
tion is either to postpone the main question for the 


522 


C winning s' Encyclopaedia. 


time, usually for the clay, or to shut off debate on it. 
The form of the previous question is: Shall the main 
question be now put? If carried, the main question is 
put without further debate; if defeated, the question is 
usually postponed for the day. 

Indefinite Postponement. A motion to postpone 
indefinitely, if carried, kills the question. An indefinite 
adjournment is equivalent to a permanent adjournment. 

Motion to Postpone. A motion to postpone or to 
lay on the table, is a temporary disposal only, and may 
be taken up any time on motion. 

AMENDMENTS. 

Division. A lengthy or cumbersome motion, if di¬ 
visible, may be divided into parts; a motion so to do, is 
equivalent to an amendment, and is subject to amend¬ 
ment; the mover should make clear his purpose. A 
motion to divide can affect only separable questions, 
such as have distinct points, which if separated, will 
not destroy the whole. 

Addition. A motion containing many propositions 
may be reduce d to fewer, by a motion striking out one 
or more, and adding their substance to those that re¬ 
main. 

Separation. A motion may have its propositions 
increased on motion to strike out parts of propositions 
and re-stating them in separate proposition^. 

Transposition . The propositions of a motion may 
be transposed by a motion to strike from one place, and 
another motion to insert the same in another place; 
two separate motions are necessary. 

Withdrawal. A mover may withdraw his motion 
at any time before it is seconded, or being seconded, 
with the consent of the one seconding. If the question 


Cummings ’ Encyclopaedia. 


623 


is already put, the unanimous consent of the assembly 
is necessary to a withdrawal. 

Successive Questions. 

Privileged Questions. A privileged question is 
one that by its importance, takes precedence of all other 
questions. There are three privileged questions and 
their order of precedence is as follows: (l) A motion to 
adjourn ; (2) a question of personal righ's , or the rights 
of the assembly ; (3) a motion for the order of the day. 

Subsidiary Questions. 

Motion to Lay on the Table. This motion takes 
precedence of all other subsidiary questions; the purpose 
being to remove, for the time, the question from before 
the as-embly. A motion may be taken from the table 
any time upon consent of the assembly. 

Previous Question. A motion to take up the pre¬ 
vious question, if carried, is not affected by any other 
subsidiary motion except the motion to lay on the table, 
and the main question must be proceeded with. 

Postponement. A motion to postpone to an ind< fi¬ 
nite time, may be amended by naming a fixed day, and 
is not effected by any subsidiary questions following. 

Commitment. This motion, it put first, cannot be 
superseded by a motion for the previous question, nor 
the motion to p»stp«»ne; whether put first or not, it 
takes precedence of a motion to amend. 

Amendment. A motion to amend may be super¬ 
seded by a motion for the previous question, or a mo¬ 
tion to commit. 

Incidental Questions. 

Question of Order. A question of order is usually 
decided by the chair; the chair’s decision, however, 


524 


Cummings' Encyclopaedia, 


may be appealed from, and is sustained or rejected by a 
majority vote of the body. 

Papers. The reading of a paper affecting the 
question may be called for by any member; objections 
to the reading of a paper must be decided by the chair, 
or the body, at once. 

Withdrawal. A motion to withdraw, after a ques¬ 
tion is put, is regular; if decided in the affirmative, the 
question is abandoned. 

Suspension. If the passage of a question is barred 
by a rule, the rule must first be suspended; a failure to 
suspend the rule forbids further consideration of the 
question. 

Amendment to an Amendment. The amendment 
to an amendment must first be disposed of before the 
amendment can be considered. 

Reconsideration. With some assemblies a recon¬ 
sideration necessitates a motion upon the part of some¬ 
one who had voted in the affirmative; this requirement 
is not a necessity and is not always adhered to. A mo¬ 
tion to reconsider, if carried, again opens up the ques¬ 
tion. 

Committees. 

A committee is appointed to consider some special 
matter, and mature it for the assembly’s consideration. 

Standing Committee. A standing committee is one 
created for a continuous service. 

Special Committee. Special committees are ap¬ 
pointed to perform some particular service. 

Appointment. Committees are usually appointed 
by the chairman, on motion, or by rule of the assembly. 

Committee Chairman. It is customary for a com¬ 
mittee to select the one first named as its chairman; 
this, however, is a matter of their own discretion, unless 


Cummings * Encyclopedia. 


525 


the president of the assembly, through a motion, desig¬ 
nates who shall act as the chairman of the committee. 

Committee of the Whole. For the purpose of dis¬ 
cussing some important matter, an assembly, on motion, 
may go into a committee of the whole. When this oc¬ 
curs, the president should name some member to act as 
chairman and take his place on the floor; the clerk 
should also yield his place to the assistant. The re¬ 
port only, of the proceedings, goes upon the minutes of 
the assembly. A committee of the whole cannot adjourn 
when ihey are ready to report; they “rise,” the presi¬ 
dent again takes the chair and continues the session, 
and the report of the committee is accepted. The com¬ 
mittee may ask to sit again or may be discharged. 













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INDEX. 


ASTRONOMY ------ 1 

ARITHMETIC 

Common Fractions h 

Measurements, Tables, etc. - - - 8 

Longitude and Time 9 

Interest, etc. - - - - - 10 

Involution, Evolution, etc. - - - 12 

Mensuration, etc. - - - - 14 

Rules ----- 17 

GEOGRAPHY 

Mathematic - - - - - 19 

Physical, etc. 21 

United States 

Physical ----- 22 

Political - - - - 28 

Industrial ----- 28 

British America - - - - 83 

Mexico ----- 34 

U. S. of Central America - - - 35 

West Indies 35 

South America 

Physical ----- 36 

Political and Industrial - - - 37 

Europe 

Physical ----- 38 

Political and Industrial - - - - 40 

Asia 

Physical - - - - - 41 

Political and Industrial - - - 42 

Africa 

Physical - - - - - 44 


1 



Political 45 

Australasia - - - - - 45 

Racks - 46 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY - - - 48 

HYDROSTATICS 51 

HYDRAULICS - - - - 53 

PNEUMATICS 54 

THERMICS - - - 56 

ACOUSTICS - ... 58 

ELECTRICITY - - - - 60 

OPTICS ... 63 

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY - - - 64 

GEOLOGY .... - 80 

MINERALOGY - - - - 8 2 

CHEMISTRY ... - 86 

ZOOLOGY ... . - 87 

READING 

Rules, etc - 91 

Our Army of the Dead - - 1)5 

Rip Van Winkle’s Sleep 96 

Grant is not Dead ... . 107 

The Sword of Robert Lee - - - 108 

Emmet’s Vindication - 109 

Thanatopsis - - - 113 

Survivors of Bunker Hill - - - 115 

The Soldier’s Dream - - - 117 

She is far from the Land - - - 118 

Tired Mothers - - - - u 8 

Liberty or Death - - - - 119 

Marco Bozzaris - 122 

The Deserted Village - _ 124 

Indian Eloquence - 126 

The Indian Hunter - . 130 

Pope’s Essay on Criticism - - 131 

Tell on the Alps - - . 134 

An Order for a Picture - 135 

The Thunder Storm - . 137 

Our Dead - 139 

Solitude So Goes the World - - 140 

The Graves of a Household - - - 141 


11 


The Chimes of Amsterdam - 
Spartacus to the Gladiators - 

Sheridan’s Ride - 

American Independence - 

The Burial of Moses - 

The Old-fashioned School - 

History of Our Flag 
The Star Spangled Banner - 

The Blue and the Gray - 
The Bells of Shandon - 
The Southern Cavalier - 

SPELLING .... 
LETTER WRITING 
ENGLISH LITERATURE 

Anglo Saxon Period ... 

King Alfred 

Old English Period - 

Chaucer and More 

Shakesperian Period - - - 

Shakespeare, Spencer, Bacon, Johnson, Milton and 
others. 

Classic Age ..... 
Walter, Butler, Bunyan, Dry den, Locke and 
Newton. 


142 

143 
146 
148 
153 
155 

159 

160 
161 
162 
163 
166 
177 

187 

187 

188 


191 


First Half of Eighteenth Century - - 192 

Pope, Addison, Goldsmith, Gray, Burns, Johnson, 
Burke, Thompson, Collins, Steele, Swift, Defoe, 

Cowper, Fielding, Sterne, Hume, Gibbon, Robertson. 

Age of Romance - - 196 

Byron, Moore, Shelly, Keats, Campbell, Hood, 
Knowles, Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey. 

Victorian age .... 201 

Tennyson, Browning, Ingelow, Proctor, Meredith, 
Macaulay, Dickens, Thackeray, Lytton, Eliot, 
Carlyle, Ruskin, Disraeli and others. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE 


Colonial Period .... 208 

Mather and Edwards. 

Revolutionary Period ... 208 

Drake, Halleck, Franklin, Jefferson, Hamilton and 
others. 

National Period to Close of Civil War. 212 


hi 


Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Holmes, Boe, 
Saxe, Reed, Boker, Taylor, Carey, Aldrich, Holland, 
Payne, Harte, Willis, Morris, Stoddard, Irving, 
Prescott, Bancroft, Cooper, Hawthorne, Stowe, 
Everett, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Pinckney, Hayne, 
Henry, Emerson, Worcester. 

National Pertod Since Civil War - - 227 

Miller, O’Reiley, Field, Carleton, Riley, Wallace, 
Phillips, Crawford, Kipling, Barnes, Allen, Mc- 
Master, Roche, Hay, Howells, King, Mitchell, 
Clemens, Crane, Egan, Burdett, Haggard, Mitchell, 


Beecher, Gibbons, and others. 

Gems of Thought - - 256 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR - - - - 243 

COMMERCIAL LAW, Etc. 262 

Contracts, etc. - - . - - 262 

Consideration, etc. - 263 

Agency, etc. - - - - - 266 

Partnership - 266 

Common Carrier, etc. - 267 

Conveyancing, etc. - 268 

Wills - 268 

Negotiable Paper - 269 

Business Papers, etc. - 271 

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY 

Greece - 276 

Homer, Herodotus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, De¬ 
mosthenes, Plutarch. 

Italy - - - - - - 275 

Cincinnatus, Horace, Virgil, Dante, Angelo, Raph¬ 
ael, Galileo, Rossini. 

Germany and Switzerland - - 276 


Bismark, Humboldt, Mozart, Beethoven, Pestalozzi, 
Froebel, Kepler, Tell 

France - 277 

Rabelais, Poussin, Descartes, Ney, MacMahon, 
Thiers, La Fayette, La Fontaine, Moitier, Racene, 
Cuvier, Comte, Guizot, Hugo, DuMaurier, Zola. 

England, Ireland, Scotland. - - _ 279 

Gladstone, O’Connell, Emmet, Hastings, Watt, 
Fitzgerald, Wellington, Franklin, Livingstone, 


IV 


Bruce, Sarsfleld, Bright, Pitt, North, Harvey, 
Grattan. 

Spain, Portugal, Holland, Austria - - 280 

Cervantes, Murillo, Camoens, Rubens, Haydn 

AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY 

Biography of the Presidents - - 282 

Washington, John Adam, Jefferson, Madison., Mon¬ 
roe, J. Q. Adams, Jackson, VanBuren, Harrison, 
Tyler, Polk, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan, 
Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, 
Cleveland, Harrison, McKinley. 

Colonial Period - 289 

Balboa, Calvert, Champlain, John Cabot, Sebastian 
Cabot, Carroll, Columbus, DeSoto, Drake, Hudson, 
LaSalle, Magellan, Marquette, Penn, Raleigh. 

Revolutionary Period - 292 

Adams, Allen, Armstrong, Chase, Clarke, Greene, 
Gates, Henry, Hayne, Hopkins, Essek; Hopkins, 
Stephen; Jasper, Jay, Johnson, R. M., Johnson, 
Samuel, Jones, DeKalb, Kosciusco, Lee, R. H., Lee, 
Henry, Lewis, Lincoln, Livingston, Lynch, Macon, 
McIntosh, Marion, Mason, Morgan, Morris, Mont¬ 
gomery, Moultrie, Moylan, O’Brien, Osgood, Otis, 
Parsons, Pickens, Pinckney, Pomeroy, Porter, Pres¬ 
cott, Pulaski, Putnam, Quincy, Ramsey, Randolph, 
Reed, Rodney, Ross, Rutledge, St. Clair, Schuyler, 
Scott, Sherman, Smith, Spencer, Stark, Steele, 
Stevens, Sullivan, Sumpter, Trumbull, Tupper, Van 
Rensselaer, Walton, Warren, Wayne, West, Wilk¬ 
inson, Williams,Wolcott, Wooster. 

Administration Period - 303 

Armstrong, Astor, Brainbridge, Barry, Benton, 
Biddle, Boone, Boyd, Brown, Burr, Calhoun, Carey, 
Cass, Choate, Clay, Clinton, Cobb, Crittenden, 
Croghan, Dallas, Douglass, Emmet, Forsyth, Fulton, 
Gaines, Gallatin, Gerry, Girard, Harney, Hayne, 
Hicks, Houston, Kane, Kenton, King, Klarney, 
Lawrence, Lewis, Livingston, Lyon, MacDonough, 
Macomb, Marshall, Miller, Morse, Patterson, Perry, 
Phillips, Pickering, Pike, Porter, Quincy, Randolph, 
Reed, Scott, Story, Swift, Taney, Vanderbilt, Van 
Rensselaer, Webster, Wirt, Woodbury, Young. 


v 


313 


Civil War Period - 

A —Adams, Anderson, Arnold, Auger, Alger, An¬ 
thony, Averill, Ayers. B —Bailey, Baker, Banks, 
Bayard, Beauregard, Beaver, Blaine, Blair, Booth, 
Barrett, Beaucieault, Bragg, Breckenridge, Bryan, 
Buckner, Buell, Butler. C—Carr, Casey, Cameron, 
Simon; Cameron, J. D., Canby, Carlisle, Clay, 
Colfax, Cooper, Corcoran, Couch, Cox, Crawford, 
Crook, Cullum, Curtis, Custer, Cody. D, E —Dahl- 
gren, Daly, Davis, Dodge, Dougherty, Douglass, 
Doubleday, Dupont, Dewey, Early, Edison, Ewell. 
F—Farragut, Field, Fish, Florence, Foote, Franklin, 
Fremont, Fry, Fuller. G —Gage, Geary, Gibbon, 
Gilmore, Gordon, Gregg, Gresham, Griffin, Grover, 
H—Hampton, Hancock, Halleck, Harlan, Harney, 
PXarris, Hartranft, Hawley, Hazen, Hendricks, Hill, 
D. H., Hill, D. B., Hoar, Hooker, Hood, Howard, 
Hobson, Hunt, Hunter. |, J. K, L—Ingalls, J. J. 
Ingalls, Gen., Jackson, Johnston, J. E., Johnston, 
A. S., Johnson, Kearney, Kilpatrick, Kelley, Lamar, 
Lee, R. E,, Lee, W. H. F., Lee, Fitzhugh, Lincoln, 
Logan, Longstreet, Lyon. M —Mansfield,McAlester, 
McCall, McClellan, McClernand, McCook, A. M., 
McCook, A. G., McCulloch, McDowell, McPherson, 
Magruder, Mahone, Manning, Marmaduke, Meade, 
Meagher, Merritt, Merrill, Miles, Mitchell, 
Morgan, G. W., Morgan, E. D., Morgan, M. 
R., Morgan, J. H., Morgan, J. D., Morton, Mulligan, 
N, O, F, Q—Nagle, Nelson, Negley, Noyes, Oakes, 
O’Brien, O’Connor, O’PIara, Olmsted, Ord, Palmer, 
Pemberton, Pendleton, Pickett, Pike, Pleasanton, 
Peck, Pope, Porter, Prentiss, Price, Pulitzer, Quay, 
Quimby. R —Ramsey, Randall, Ransom, Rollins, 
Reed, Reno, Reynolds, Richardson, Ricketts, 
Rodman, Rogers, Rosecrans, Roosevelt, Ryan, 
Ruger. 8—Schofield, Sedgwick, Sheridan, Sherman, 
W. T., Sherman, John; Sherman, T. W., Seward, 
Shields, Sliepley, Sickles, Sigel, Slocum, Smith, C. 
F., Smith, C. H., Smith, E. K., Stanley, Stanton, 
Steele, Steedman, Stevens, Stevenson, Stewart, 
Stone, Stoneman, Stuart, Sweeney, Sturgess, Samp¬ 
son, Schley. T, U, V—Terry, Thomas, Underwood, 


VI 



VanDorn, Voorhees. W, X, Y, Z— Walker, Wallace, 
Ward, Wheeler, Webb, Webster, Weed, Weitzel, 
Willard, Wood, Yates, Young, Zollicoffer. 


UNIVERSAL HISTORY 

Ancient History 

Greece 

Rome 

Byzantine Empire 

Saracen Conquests 

Empire of Charlemagne 

Feudal System 

Wars of the Cross 

France 

England 

Germany 

Russia 

Spain - 

Ireland 

Austria and Italy, etc. 
Mexico 

Other Countries 


861 

865 

867 

379 

380 

380 

381 

382 
883 
390 
401 
404 
406 
408 

424 

425 
427 


UNITED STATES HISTORY 


First Epoch * 430 

Spanish Discoveries, French Discoveries, English 
Discoveries, Dutch Discoveries, Settlements, Im¬ 
portant Events. 

Second Epoch - 437 

King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War, King 
George’s War, French and Indian War. 

Third Epoch - 439 

Revolutionary War 

Fourth Epoch ----- 446 
Washington’s Administration. John Adams’ Ad¬ 
ministration, Jefferson’s Administration, Madison’s 
Administration, “War of 1812,” Monroe’s Adminis¬ 
tration, J. Q. Adams’ Administration, Jackson’s 
Administration, VanBuren’s Administration, Harri¬ 
son and Tyler’s Administration, Polk’s Administra¬ 
tion, War with Mexico, Taylor and Fillmore’s 
Administration, Pierce’s Administration, Buchan¬ 
an’s Adm inistration. 


VII 


462 


Fifth Epoch 
Civil War. 
Sixth Epoch 


473 


Reconstruction. Grant’s Administration, Hayes’ 
Administration, Garfield and Arthur’s Administra¬ 
tion, Cleveland’s first Administration, Harrison’s 
Administration, Cleveland’s second Administration, 
McKinley’s Administration, Spanish American 
War, Declaration of Independence, Table of States. 


499 


CIVIL GOVERNMENT 


Government, U. S. Government, Miscellaneous, 
Constitution of the United States. 


PARLIAMENTARY RULES 


520 



VIII 

















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